FORM ONE
HISTORY AND
GOVERNMENT NOTES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY & GOVERNMENT
The meaning of History
What is History?
History is the study of Man‟s past chronological account and record of events in reaction
to his environment. Or:
It is a science concerned with past human actions, pursued by interpretation of evidence
for the sake of human self-knowledge.
History is closely related to prehistory.
What is Pre-History?
Prehistory are the activities in which human beings engaged before the invention of
writing and drawing for storing information.
Identify the sources of prehistoric information.
Songs,
Myths,
Stories,
Artefacts,
Fossils,
The language of a people.
Into what three branches is History divided?
Social History, which deals with people‟s traditions and values, enshrined in their
religion, beliefs, cultural practices, dressing, taboos and literature.
Political history, which deals with control systems in a society, e.g. maintenance of law
and order, leadership and security. In it, famous leaders and their systems of governments are
studied.
Economic History, which refers to people‟s means of livelihood e.g. hunting, food
gathering, trade, agriculture and communication.
The meaning of government
What is Government?
It is the practice of ruling or exercising continuous authority over one‟s subjects.
It is an intermediate body set up by society to ensure equity and the execution of laws
while maintaining social and political liberty.
Describe the characteristics of government.
Rules, which govern members to ensure that life runs smoothly for the benefit of all.
Sovereignty i.e. the supreme authority of the government to exercise its powers
within its boundaries.
Jurisdiction i.e. the geographical area within which the government exercises powers
and rules.
Legitimacy I.e. being acceptable to the people over who it exercises power.
Law enforcement i.e. ability to take action against those who break the law.
Describe three main arms of government.
The Legislature (Parliament), which makes laws. The Legislature is made up of the
national assembly and the President.
The Executive, which is made up of the President, the Cabinet and the Civil Service. It
implements laws.
The Judiciary (Court system), which ensures that laws made are constitutional, are
followed and those who break them are punished.
Describe four forms of Government.
Dictatorship. Here, the ruler has total power over his/her subjects. Dictators are the sole
authority where they rule. They make the law and execute justice. They exercise their rule
forcefully, suppressing their subjects at will. They impose their will over others and interfere
with or limit the freedom of their subjects. Examples of dictatorship include Germany during
the rule of Adolf Hitler, Italy under Benito Mussolini and Uganda during the rule of Idi Amin
Dada.
Democratic Government, whereby rulers regularly seek public mandate by popular vote,
based on free and fair election and on the fact that elected officials represent the wishes and
aspirations of the people. In such a government, matters of national importance stem from
freedoms and rights provided for in the Constitution, which governs the law of the nation.
Aristocracy. In this, a group of people from the highest social classes in a society rule
over others. The queen or king is the head of government, whose senior positions are held by
privileged members of the royal family, who are considered as a rear breed of people and
who are considered superior to other human beings because of the wealthy family
background they are born into in addition to their superior education.
Monarchy. In this, democracy is practised, but aristocratic power is respected. In such
government, Parliament is the supreme organ, but the king and the royal family are retained
in power as a tradition. The King or Queen is therefore respected as head of state.
Describe two categories into which Monarchical government is classified.
Absolute Monarchy, whereby the head of state is dictatorial since his/her power is
unrestricted.
Constitutional Monarchy, whereby the power of the King or Queen is restricted, based on
the provisions in the constitution.
In both cases, power is inherited within the family of the royalty.
What is the importance of studying History & Government?
(a) Studying History enables us to:
Learn about past political developments, which inspire nationalism.
Understand the origin of human beings and their various past achievements.
Prepare for careers in public administration, law and teaching.
Appreciate past experiences of human beings to understand the present.
Increase our knowledge about past events.
Understand our cultures and those of other people.
Acquire a sense of identity by telling us who we are and where we came from.
(b) The study of government helps us to:
Understand the responsibilities and powers vested in different organs of government,
such as the Legislature, Executive and Judiciary.
Understand the administrative organization in our country.
Learn how development projects are designed and implemented.
Learn how conflicts in society are solved peacefully.
Understand how the government raises revenue and the checks and balances on
government expenditure.
Understand the duties and responsibilities of citizens.
Understand how laws are made.
Learn the democratic principles that govern most countries.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HISTORY & GOVERNMENT
Into what three main categories are sources of information on History & Government
divided?
Unwritten sources, which refer to unrecorded historical information, whereby
conclusions are based on available information.
Written sources i.e. recorded historical information, whereby conclusions are based on
document produced by making letters or any other symbols on a surface for the purpose of
communication.
Electronic sources i.e. information processed through devices that control and direct or
operate on a small electric current, e.g. electronic calculators, computers, etc.
UNWRITTEN SOURCES
Describe five unwritten sources of information on History & Government.
Oral Tradition, i.e. the practice of passing information from one generation to the next by
word of mouth. It was mainly important in societies where the art of writing was absent.
Linguistics, i.e. the scientific study of languages by tracing the principles of languagechange
and establishment of the current genealogical classification of a particular language.
Anthropology, i.e. the study of human beings and their culture.
Genetics, i.e. the scientific study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.
Archaeology, i.e. the study of man‟s past through scientific analysis of the material
remains of his culture.
Name four types of Oral tradition.
Folk tales,
Proverbs,
Songs,
Stories.
What are the advantages of Oral Tradition as a source of information on History and
Government?
They capture information that may not be obtained through other sources. For example,
one who participated in the Maumau War can vividly narrate what occurred during the
period.
They compliment other sources of information.
They are short and easy to remember.
They are useful in training and activating one‟s memory. Jesters, Griots and other
custodians of their communities‟ history had very powerful and long memories.
In mid 20th century, many African historians used oral traditions to reconstruct the history
of Kenyan and other sub-Saharan African societies.
Explain the limitations of Oral Traditions as a source of information on History &
Government.
(What are the disadvantages/weaknesses of Oral Tradition as a source of information on
History and Government?)
It is difficult to distinguish between what is real and what is imagined.
Some information may be forgotten or omitted as oral traditions depend on human
memory.
Informants might deliberately distort the information.
They may not give the correct chronology of events.
It is an expensive method of getting information.
It is time-consuming.
Explain how the form, content, vocabulary and the historical experience of the people
who speak a given language could be illustrated.
Distribution of languages. The smaller the distribution, the less influential or younger the
language. The more widespread it is, the stronger or older it might be.
Relationship between languages. People who speak related languages might have a
common origin, be connected, or have close contact some time in the past.
Variations between languages of the same family indicate how long ago the break in
contact occurred. Greater variations show longer periods of separation.
State the advantages of Linguistics as a source of information on History and
Government. (In what ways is Linguistics important as a source of information on History
and Government?)
It provides information about the movements of the people and their relationships.
It helps to establish theories of origin, migration and settlement of various communities.
They compliment oral traditions and other sources of historical information.
it is useful in dating people‟s migration.
Through Linguistics, historians discover previously unknown links between different
people.
What are the limitations of linguistics as a source of information on History &
Government? (State the disadvantages/weaknesses of Linguistics as a source of information
on History and Government).
Delayed acquisition of information since it takes long to learn a particular language.
Some words could be omitted or distorted while translating the language.
Various languages may have similar words but with different meanings.
The borrowing of words might corrupt or interfere with the parent-language.
Some languages have become extinct.
Explain why anthropologists must live among the people who they study.
(What are the advantages (or what is the importance) of anthropology as a source of
information on History and Government?)
one would experience the people‟s way of life.
One understands and explains social and other structures within their society of study.
One explains aspects of the economy on which a given community depend.
One is able to determine a people‟s cultural past.
One has a deeper understanding of a particular aspect of a people‟s culture.
What are the limitations of Anthropology as a source of information on history &
Government?
(State the disadvantages/weaknesses of Anthropology as a source of information on History
and Government.)
It is expensive as it involves living with the people on who research is conducted.
It is time-consuming.
Researchers may not adapt to new environments.
The researcher may miss vital information as the people being studied may behave
differently in the presence of the researcher.
The researcher risks losing his or her own culture on adapting to the environment of
study.
Explain the importance of Genetics as a source of information on History and
Government.
(What are the advantages of Genetics as a source of information on History and
Government?)
We learn how human beings adapted to their environment and utilized available land and
animals to meet their needs.
We get to know how characteristics are passed from parents to their offsprings.
We study appearance, domestication and movement of plants and people whose economy
plants are part of.
Through Genetic study, botanists come up with new and more suitable crops that can
resist diseases and withstand various climatic conditions.
We get to know where most plant varieties are.
We distinguish persons and indicate some relationships among people of various
communities.
What are the limitations of Genetics as a source of information on History and
Government?
(state the weaknesses/disadvantages of Genetics as a source of information on History and
Government.)
It is expensive.
Researchers may not adapt to new environments due to health and other risks.
It is technologically demanding as it requires a lot of sophisticated material and
equipment.
It is time-consuming. Apart from much fieldwork, one spends a lot more time training
before becoming a Genetics specialist.
Explain how archaeologists and palaeontologists discover historical sites.
They look for areas where faulting or erosion have occurred, exposing surfaces that may
give some clues to the point of finding fossils and artefacts. Sometimes they have to dig deep
to find physical remains.
Identification or differentiation of the physical features of an area from those of the
ground in places around. For example, a small part of an early settlement, such as a few
stones in a regular pattern may be seen on the surface in such an area.
Enquiries on sites mentioned in a historical document or an oral narrative of the
geography and other historical features of the area cited. This may lead to important insights
to past civilizations, such as Troy, Ur, Babylon, Omo River valley and Olduvai Gorge.
Long experience in identifying a potential site for archaeological excavation.
Accidental exposure of ancient objects during cultivation and building construction,
which could arouse the curiosity of researchers.
Explain how Archaeological study and analysis is done.
(In what ways is Archaeological study and analysis done)?
The Archaeologist studies what evidence remains of the material culture of a people‟s
past.
Activities of prehistoric people are reconstructed from various evidence, e.g. traces of
weapons and tools they used, clothing, bones, earthworks, dwelling-places, etc.
Concepts or understanding of a people‟s civilization at the time the artefacts were in use
are formulated. E.g. hunting and pastoralism could be indicated by rock paintings of certain
animals on cave-walls.
Man‟s relationship with his environment is interpreted and dated. Here, the archaeologist
works with Palaeontologists, Geologists, Ecologists, Chemists, Physicists and other natural
scientists.
Identify six methods of dating fossils.
(Explain how fossils are dated.)
Geological periods, characterised by climatic changes and the successive types of plants
and animals found.
Chemical dating. This is of two kinds i.e. Radio-Carbon dating and Potassium-Argon
method. Radio-Carbon dating measures organic substances and the rate of decay of carbon-
14 in fossils. Potassium-Argon method measures the amount of potassium and the amount of
Argon-40 to assist in dating volcanic ash and minerals.
Stratigraphy i.e. the study and interpretation of the layers of rock successively deposited
at one place. It is useful in determining dates for areas affected by sedimentation.
Fission Track dating. This is useful in dating Pleistocene samples. The age of glass and
other mineral objects is determined through this method.
Statistical dating. This helps in determining the length of a generation for a particular
society by estimating dates for events associated with certain generations.
Lexico Statistics dating. This is the statistical study of the vocabulary of languages to
determine their age and historical links with other languages. It is based on the assumption
that all languages have a basic vocabulary that will gradually change at a common rate for all
languages at all times.
Glotto-Chronology, which is a subdivision of Lexico Statistics, attempts to establish that
languages are historically related. It helps in expressing rates of language-development by
formulae precise enough to enable dates when change occurred to be calculated.
More than one method of dating can be useful in order to ascertain the dates of either
fossils or artefacts.
What are the advantages of using Archaeology as a source of information on History &
Government?
Unlike other sources, it gives detailed information on material culture.
It provides a sense of time as artefacts are dated.
It complements other sources of information.
It provides diversified information, depending on the materials found.
It enables the researcher to directly observe the site and to classify the artefacts.
The general principle that identifies culture by an assemblage of material possession is
only practicable in archaeology. Only Archaeology discovers and proves that remains are
found in layers of succession, with the oldest at the bottom and the latest at the top.
State the limitations of using Archaeology as a source of information on History &
Government.
(What are the disadvantages/weaknesses/shortcomings of Archaeology as a source of
information on History and Government?)
One cannot study present materials or events.
Archaeological information could be inaccurate as it is often based on conclusions and
reconstructions.
It is difficult to trace archaeological sites.
Archaeology estimates but does not provide precise dates.
It is a time-consuming venture since preparation for an excavation and transportation of
artefacts to laboratories for analysis is long and laborious processes.
There are few archaeological experts to interpret data.
Some materials are fragile and could easily break, thereby misleading analysts.
It is expensive to excavate and analyse artefacts. This is because:
Explain why excavation and analysis of artefacts is an expensive venture.
Labourers have to be hired to excavate a site.
Transportation of artefacts to laboratories for analysis is often a cumbersome, complex
and delicate venture.
Archaeological equipment are often costly and scarce.
The cost of staff-upkeep is very high.
Analysis of and dating artefacts is very hard.
WRITTEN SOURCES
Identify five written sources of information.
Books,
Archives,
Constitutions,
Journals,
Novels,
Plays,
Newspapers,
Magazines,
Documentaries,
Diaries,
Reports,
Periodicals,
Paintings.
Identify three major places where Written sources of information are found.
Libraries, i.e. Buildings in which collections of written or recorded information are kept
for people to read, study or borrow.
Archives, i.e. stores or collections of historical records, especially those carrying
classified information of governments or organizations.
Museums, i.e. buildings in which artistic, cultural, historical or scientific objects are kept
and shown to the public.
Describe three categories into which written sources of information are classified.
Archives.
Early Manuscripts.
Printed sources.
What are Archives?
(Explain two meanings of the term Archives.)
A collection of historical records, especially those carrying classified information of
government or an organization, which, after a period of time, is accessible to the public.
Places for keeping public, government and other historical records.
In Kenya, archival records are preserved at the Kenya national Archives.
What is a Manuscript?
A manuscript is an author‟s hand-written or typed text that has not been published, e.g. those
on which the Bible and the Quran are based.
Identify three major forms of early manuscripts.
Stone tablets, i.e. flat pieces of stone with words written on them, e.g. those fixed to walls
in memory of important persons or events.
Scrolls, i.e. long rolls of paper on which writing was done.
Parchments, i.e. materials made from sheep or goat skin, used in the past for writing on.
What are the advantages of Written Records?
(In what ways are written records important as a source of information on History and
government?)
They are permanent and can be read over the years.
It is hard to change written information to suit one‟s own interpretation.
They are cheap when compared, particularly to anthropology and archaeology.
They are more accurate since information is preserved exactly as it was recorded.
Writing accommodates all available information in both original and refined form.
What are the limitations of written records?
(Explain the weaknesses/shortcomings of Written Records as a source of information on
History and Government.)
Information may be too detailed for use in normal circumstances.
Information may be misunderstood or misinterpreted.
They are at times bulky, cumbersome and difficult to maintain.
They are at times very expensive to acquire and use, e.g. newspapers.
They are at times biased, especially when authors write from their particular point of
view.
ELECTRONIC SOURCES
Name any three Electronic sources of information on history & Government.
Microfilms,
Films,
Videos,
Radio,
Television
Computerised data-bases.
What are the advantages of electronic sources of information on History &
Government?
They can be clearly read when magnified.
They capture words and emotions of an event as it happens.
They combine sound, picture and motion.
They facilitate instant retrieval of and access to information.
Most are not bulky.
State the limitations of Electronic sources of information on history & Government.
They are subject to bias as they mostly contain foreign (European and American)
material.
They are too expensive to buy and run. Many people cannot afford to buy radios,
television sets and videos. The cost of electricity for operating these equipment is high.
Some acted films are unrealistic for they contain exaggerated information.
There is a lot of permissiveness, largely caused by improper use of electronic material.
CHAPTER 2
EARLY MAN
MAN‟S ORIGIN
Describe the theories that explain the origin of mankind.
The Creation Theory. This presents man and everything else as having been created by
God. It is contained mainly in the Bible (used by Christians) and the Quran (used by
Muslims). The theory further states that God gave man authority to control the earth in all
ways.
The Mythical (traditional) Theory. This is an attempt by individuals or communities of
people to explain their origin. It is given through Oral Traditions, myths and legends. It
mainly states that the first people were created by God.
The Evolution Theory, which states that all living organisms resulted from a natural
process of gradual and continuous change from a lower (simpler) state to a better-adapted
(complex) and superior one. The Evolution Theory was advanced by Charles Darwin in
1859.
Identify two illustrations/examples of the Mythical (Traditional) theory.
According to the Agikuyu, God (Ngai) appeared and created their ancestors (Gikuyu and
Mumbi) at Mukurwe Wa Gathanga.
According to the Nandi, the first two people came from the knees of a giant man, which
began to swell until they burst. A man came from one knee and a woman from the other.
These became the ancestors of the Nandi-speaking people of Kenya. This is an example of
myths in certain communities that do not directly refer to God‟s creation.
EVOLUTION OF MAN
What is evolution?
Evolution is a natural process of gradual and continuous change of living organisms from a
lower (simpler) state to a better-adapted (complex) and superior one.
Identify four distinct stages in which evolution took place according to Charles
Darwin.
Mutation,
natural selection,
Isolation.
Adaptation.
State the principles of Natural Selection.
All organisms are uniquely different, based on hereditary factors each has from birth.
Although many organisms are produced, few manage to develop to maturity.
Only organisms that constantly adapt to the existing environment manage to grow to
maturity and reproduce. For instance, the Amoeba, which may have survived only in water,
changed by mutation and cast a protective shell (cyst) around its body, which enabled it to
survive when the climate changed and became dry.
Even after mutation, only the fittest organisms could survive as the weak became extinct
due to limited resources. This theory came to be popularly known as Survival for the Fittest.
As species emerging from mutation and natural selection increase in number, search for
basic needs intensifies. Some few species take on a significantly different form through
adaptation to the new environment as they get isolated from the rest.
Darwin‟s theory of evolution is supported by almost all scientists, particularly
palaeontologists. It holds that human beings belong to the Animal Kingdom and that Man is
a primate as are apes like gorillas, chimpanzees and monkeys, although apes belong to the
family Pongidae while human beings are in the Hominidae family.
Analyse the evolution and adaptation of Man.
The earliest living things appeared probably about 200 million years ago as microscopic
creatures in the expansive waters that covered the earth.
Gradually, the creatures evolved into bigger organisms such as fish and amphibians,
equipped with special features to survive, which differentiated them from those we have
today.
Climatic changes About 150 million years ago led to the drying up of swamps and other
water masses. Most of the early creatures perished as some others evolved into small
reptiles such as dinosaurs.
Mammals may have evolved from such small reptiles.
Man may have evolved from such animals. He was then transformed over millions of
years from a primitive form to what he is today.
The first stage of man‟s evolution was the appearance of hominids that were more
manlike than apelike. These became the ancestors of the human family.
State two major reasons why the earliest mammals lived on trees.
There was more supply of food on trees, such as insects, leaves and birds‟ eggs.
They were more secure from their enemies while up on trees.
Explain why Africa is the most probable cradle of mankind.
African Savannas were ideal for primates.
The moist, warm and varied climate supported animal and plant life.
Archaeological sites were discovered in the Great Lakes region of eastern Africa and
along the Great Rift Valley. This confirms that hominids were living in this region by the
time the rift valley was being formed.
The earliest apes and various animals may have first lived around what is now Lake
Victoria and the rift valley, then some went northwards into Europe and Asia. This was
because, at that time, areas along the Equator (especially central and west Africa) were
covered in thick forest. Around the Great lakes of East Africa was the Savannah (grassland
with scattered trees and bushes). It was in this environment that man had his first home.
Due to earth quakes and volcanic eruptions during the formation of the great rift valley,
allot of dust was brought up, which covered places where hominids had left their weapons,
tools, their own bones, and those of other animals. These became archaeological sites in
east Africa.
Name the archaeological sites in Kenya.
Rusinga Island,
Fort Ternan near Kericho,
Kariandusi near Elmentaita,
Gambles Cave,
Olorgesailie,
Koobi-For a near Lake Turkana,
Hyrax Hill,
Kanjiri
Njoro River Cave.
Name the archaeological sites in Tanzania.
Garusi,
Olduvai Gorge,
Peninj,
Apis Rock,
Isimila
Eyasi.
Name the archaeological sites in Uganda.
Nsongezi,
Nyero,
Napaka,
Magosi,
Paraa,
Ishango,
Mweya,
Nyabusora.
Identify/name archaeological sites outside East Africa.
Fayum depression in Egypt.
Taung in Botswana.
Omo River valley in Ethiopia.
The Afar depression in Ethiopia.
Hadar in Ethiopia.
Tenerife in Algeria.
Bodo in Ethiopia.
Matupi cave in Shaba province of Congo DRC.
Kalambo falls in Zambia.
Orangia in southern Africa.
Dar Es Sultan cave in southern Africa.
Apollo II caves in Orange state in South Africa.
Explain how climatic and environmental changes influenced Man’s evolution.
Physical features that were no longer needed in the Savannah, such as the tail, were done
away with.
Man became more upright in posture since he used his forelimbs in making tools, in
hunting and in protecting himself from other predators. The upright posture cooled the body
by exposing less body surface to the sun.
As the forests disappeared, competition for food intensified. Human beings gradually
changed their eating habits, indicating a break-off point between apes and hominids.
Hominids‟ skull-sizes became larger, indicating bigger brains.
The jaws and teeth of hominids became smaller but powerful, indicating their use in
tearing, cutting of tough fibres and roots, or even the need to defend themselves using their
teeth as a weapon.
Their fore-arms and hands became shorter and more appropriate for an upright posture
while the thumb became stronger and more separate from the other four fingers, indicating
the need for a firmer grip on other things such as pebbles and tree branches.
Their legs and front formation changed in order to support the weight of the rest of the
body and maintain a balance while either motionless or mobile. The feet and toes became
shorter as they were no longer required to hold onto tree branches.
STAGES OF MAN’S EVOLUTION
1. Identify the alternative names by which the following stages of man‟s evolution are
known:
Dryopithecus Africanus.
Ramapithecus.
Australopithecus.
2. Name the types of Australopithecus.
3. Identify the characteristics of:
Aegyptopithecus,
Dryopithecus Africanus,
Ramapithecus,
Australopithecus,
Homohabilis,
Homoerectus,
Homosapien
Homosapiens Sapiens.
5. In what ways was Homoerectus different from hominids that came before him?
6. Name the places where the remains of Homoerectus were found.
7. Identify three subspecies of Homosapiens.
8. In what ways are Homosapiens Sapiens different from Homosapiens?
9. Describe three major races into which mankind is divided.
10. Analyse the stages through which early man evolved.
(a) AEGYPTOPITHECUS.
The name Aegyptopithecus means Egyptian Ape. Aegyptopithecus‟ 33 million year-old 4kg
small skull-remains were found in the Fayum depression. He lived at a time when Egypt
was a forested area.
Characteristics of Aegyptopithecus
He was a monkey like creature: the earliest probable ancestor of both Man and Ape.
He had stereoscopic vision and hands with which he would skilfully jump from one tree
to another.
His teeth were those of a herbivore.
b) DRYOPITHECUS AFRICANUS (Proconsul).
The twenty million year-old skull of this hominid was found on Rusinga island within the
Kenya part of the Lake Victoria region in 1948 by Mary and Louis Leakey. He was the
earliest evidence that Africa was Man‟s first home, for he occupied the entire east African
forest, though he was also found in Europe and South-East Asia. The term Dryopithecus
means Woodland Ape.
Characteristics of Dryopithecus Africanus
He was chimpanzee like.
He had a smooth forehead.
He had long teeth like those of other animals.
He mainly ate fruits.
© RAMAPITHECUS (Kenyapithecus).
The 15-12 million year-old remains of Ramapithecus were found by Mary and Louis
Leakey at Fort Ternan near kericho and also at Samburu hills and in the Lakes Turkana and
Baringo basins. Ramapithecus and other manlike creatures were also discovered in Europe,
India and China.
Characteristics of Ramapithecus
He was manlike.
He had small canines.
He was quadrapedal (he moved on his four limbs), though he occasionally walked on two
legs.
(d) AUSTRALOPITHECUS (Zinjanthropus).
Remains of Australopithecus were found at Taung in Botswana in 1924 by Raymond Dart,
at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania by Mary Leakey in 1959 and throughout eastern Africa e.g.
regions around Lake Natron in Tanzania, Lake Turkana in Kenya and Omo River valley in
Ethiopia.
Characteristics of Australopithecus
He was the earliest most manlike hominid.
He had a pelvis and leg that were similar to modern man‟s.
He was bipedal (walked on two limbs).
Could defend themselves.
Could attack their enemies.
Could see or sense impending danger from a distance.
Could grasp objects with ease.
May have been hairy, short and strong.
Had a large face and low forehead.
Had stereoscopic vision.
Had much larger teeth, skull and jaws.
His brain was smaller than modern man‟s, but larger than that of the most intelligent ape:
the Gorilla.
Classifications/types of Australopithecus
Four different types of Australopithecus have been identified. These are:
Australopithecus Anamensis, whose four-million year old remains, were found at
Kenapoi and Alliabay in the Lake Turkana region.
Australopithecus Afarensis, which was bipedal and small in stature. His four to three
million year old remains were found at Laetoli in Tanzania and Tugen Hills in Baringo
district: Kenya. The name Afarensis is derived from the Afar depression in Ethiopia.
Australopithecus Africanus (Gracilis), who lived between three to two and a half million
years ago and was small, light, slender and a metre and a half tall, with a small brain, but
larger teeth, jaws and skull.
Australopithecus Robustus, which was strongly built, with massive jaws and powerful
teeth, weighed 68kg and was the biggest and most recent type of Australopithecus. He lived
between two and one and a half million years ago in South Africa and was apparently
vegetarian. He ate fruits, nuts and raw tubers. The Eastern African Australopithecus
Robustus was named Australopithecus Boisei.
(e) HOMOHABILIS (Practical man).
This was the first species of the genus Homo. His two and a half to one and a half millionyear
old remains were found at Olduvai Gorge by Jonathan Leakey in 1964, Hadar and
Omo River valley in Ethiopia and Koobi-For a in the lake Turkana area in 1972.
Characteristics of Homohabilis
He was five feet tall.
He had a skull similar to modern man‟s in shape.
He was omnivorous.
He could grasp objects.
He made and used tools.
(f) HOMOERECTUS (upright man).
Homoerectus lived between two million to two hundred thousand years ago.
He was five and a half feet tall.
He was bipedal (walked on two legs).
He made and used tools, such as hand-axes, crude spears and arrowheads from stone,
bone and wood.
In what ways was Homoerectus different from earlier hominids?
Homoerectus was different from hominids that came before him in the following ways:
He had a bigger brain.
He had a long skull.
He had long protruding jaws.
He could communicate by speech.
He made and used fire.
He had some form of home.
Name the places where remains of Homoerectus were found.
The remains of Homoerectus were found:
At Hadar and Omo river valley in Ethiopia,
At Nariokotone River on the north-western shore of Lake Turkana,
At Olorgesailie near Lake Magadi.
At Isimila near Iringa in Tanzania,
In Tenerife in Algeria,
In morocco.
In South Africa.
Homoerectus also lived in France, Spain, India, Indonesia, Hungary and Brazil. In Asia,
he is referred to as Java man or Peking Man.
(g) HOMOSAPIEN (Thinking/Intelligent man).
Homosapien appeared between two hundred thousand and a hundred and fifty thousand
years ago.
Characteristics of Homosapien
He was under six feet tall
He had small teeth.
He had a steep and well-rounded forehead.
He had long straight legs.
He made a variety of more refined tools i.e. microliths.
He was a fisherman and hunter-gatherer.
He domesticated plants and animals.
Remains of Homosapien were found at:
Eliye springs near Lake Turkana,
Kanjera and Kanam in Kenya,
Bodo and Omo river valley in Ethiopia,
Ngaloba in Tanzania.
Three subspecies of Homosapien have been identified. These are:
The Rhodesian Man, discovered in northern Rhodesia (present-day Zambia). he was still
more apelike, with ridges over his eyes and a backward sloping forehead. But he had
straight legs and walked with long strides, with a skull and brain like modern man‟s. He
made and used scrapping and cutting tools from bone and stone.
Neanderthal Man, discovered in Neander valley in Germany in 1856 and in Asia, north
Africa, France, Belgium, Gibraltar, Italy, former Yugoslavia and other parts of Europe. He
was a hunter-gatherer. Though heavily built with a thick skull, broad shoulders and bushy
eye-brows like an ape, he made and used skilfully chipped stone tools and practised
ceremonial burial just like modern man.
Cro-Magnon Man, discovered in Europe. This one cooked using fire and was a huntergatherer,
painter and cave dweller. He resembled modern man, except that he was taller,
stronger and with bushy eyebrows.
(h) HOMOSAPIENS SAPIENS.
These may have appeared around fifty thousand years ago and are associated with new
inventions in military technology, medicine, agriculture and industries.
Homosapiens Sapiens are different from Homosapiens in the following ways:
They have a more advanced faculty for curiosity and intelligence,
They plan ahead,
They make accurate forecasts,
They study stars and galaxies,
They think and invent.
More recent discoveries of early man include:
The Millennium man, discovered in 2000 in Baringo: Kenya, which dates back to six
million years ago.
The 6-7 million year old Trumai, found in Chad in 2002AD, which indicates that man
may have started evolving separately from apes much earlier than currently thought.
Using their superior technology, Homosapiens were able to disperse and adapt to areas
where other hominids would not have survived, leading to emergence of various races of
people with distinct characteristics in skin colour, hair and facial appearance, probably due
to isolation of various human populations and their adaptation to different environments.
Races of mankind
There are three main races of mankind. These are:
The Negroid, which largely comprises Africans, who mainly occupy Africa.
The Caucasoid, (Caucasians), which is made up of Whites and Indians. These are mainly
found in Europe, Asia and North America.
The Mongoloids, who include Chinese, Japanese, Koreans and the natives of the
Americas.
EARLY MAN‟S WAY OF LIFE
Why is the period of early man referred to as the Stone Age?
It was called so because man‟s material culture mainly comprised stone. Man‟s tools,
weapons and other equipment were mainly made from stone.
List the three stages into which the Stone Age period has been divided.
The Old Stone Age, also known as the Lower Palaeolithic, which lasted between 450,000
to 50,000 years ago and was mainly characterised by making a few simple tools.
The Middle Stone Age (Middle Palaeolithic), also called the Mesolithic, which lasted
between 2, 00,000-10,000 years ago and is mainly associated with Homoerectus and
Homosapiens.
The New Stone Age (Upper Palaeolithic), also known as the Late Stone Age, which
lasted between 15,000-1500 years ago and is associated with Homosapiens and
Homosapiens Sapiens.
THE OLD STONE AGE
Describe two phases into which the Old Stone Age was divided.
The First Phase, which is associated with Olduwan (pebble) tools.
The Second Phase, which was characterised by making and use of Acheullian tools.
Name/describe the technique by which early man made weapons and tools during the
Old Stone Age.
It was “La Vallois” Technique (shaping flint by blows), characterised by use of easily
available material such as stone in making weapons and tools.
Name/describe the earliest well finished manmade tool.
It was the Fist-Hatchet, which was a Flint-stone that was broad at one end but narrow and
sharp at the other and basically served as a cutting tool, though it was multipurpose.
Identify/describe two types of tools made/used by early man during the Old Stone Age.
Olduwan (pebble) tools, made from fairly large round stones. They were made and used
only in Africa by Australopithecus and Homohabilis.
Acheullian tools, which were first discovered at Saint Acheul valley in northern France,
which explains the background of their name. They appeared in east Africa about one and a
half million years ago.
Outline three examples of Olduwan tools.
Flakes,
Choppers,
Fist-hatchets.
Identify the places where Olduwan tools were found.
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania,
Koobi-Fora near Lake Turkana in Kenya,
Omo river valley in Ethiopia,
Kafu valley in Uganda,
Shaba province in the Democratic republic of Congo,
Algeria,
Morocco,
Tunisia.
Olduwan tools were widely spread in south, central and North Africa.
In what places were Acheullian tools found?
Acheullian tools appeared in east Africa about one and a half million years ago and have
been found in
Tanzania
Uganda,
Malawi,
Zambia,
Zimbabwe,
Mozambique,
South Africa,
North Africa,
Kenya,
The Mediterranean basin,
The Middle East,
India,
England.
In Kenya, Acheullian tools were found at:
Kariandusi,
Olorgesailie,
Kilombe,
Chesowanja,
Mtongwe,
Isenya,
Lewa downs.
Explain how Acheullian tools were made.
Acheullian tools, which are associated with Homoerectus, were made by flaking the corestone
on both sides to produce a sharp-pointed end and longer cutting edges.
Identify any two Acheullian tools.
Hand-axes
Cleavers.
State the uses of Acheullian tools.
Cutting,
Digging,
Skinning,
Scrapping.
Describe Man’s life during the Old Stone Age with regard to:
(a) Climate and Clothes,
(b) Shelter and food.
CLIMATE AND CLOTHES
In Old Stone Age, man walked naked because:
He had not yet learned how to make clothes.
The open grassland in the Savannah (in which early man lived) had climate that was
warm enough to make lack of clothes bearable.
He had a hairy body.
stone Age must have been colder than it is today, which explains why man‟s body was
hairy.
SHELTER AND FOOD
Man slept on trees, in tree-trunks, stone-caves and rock-shelters for protection from
predators. He had not yet learnt how to build houses.
Man fed on plants, birds‟ eggs and insects, which he ate raw since fire-making had not
yet been invented.
He had a kind of home-base, where he often brought some of his food.
Describe man’s hunting methods during the Old Stone Age period.
Old Stone-age man hunted by:
Chasing and throwing stone bolars to entangle and catch the escaping prey.
Digging large pits in the path of big animals to trap them as they went to drink water.
Chasing or herding animals over steep cliffs or into muddy or swampy lakes for easy
catching. Man then skinned his prey and ate the meat raw.
Hunting was a group activity. It was a kind of life that required strong people.
As men hunted, women gathered fruits and berries.
Name the hominids that the Old Stone Age is associated with.
Australopithecus,
Homohabilis,
Homoerectus.
THE MIDDLE STONE AGE
Name the hominids that the Middle Stone Age is associated with.
Homoerectus,
Homosapien.
Identify three types of tools made and used during the Middle Stone Age.
Sangoan tools, some of which were found at Sango bay on the western side of Lake
Victoria in Tanzania, which explains why they bear the name Sangoan tools.
Specialized stone-tools, made through the Mousterian style.
The Tang, which may have been the first tool with a handle and was invented and used in
North Africa about 40,000 years ago.
Identify the techniques used in tool making during the Middle Stone Age.
“La Vallois” technique, used in making Sangoan tools.
The Mousterian style, which was used in making specialized stone-tools.
Identify the discoveries or inventions made by Homoerectus during the Middle Stone
Age.
Invention and use of fire.
Invention and use of better weapons and hunting methods.
Cooking of food, which rendered previously poisonous kinds edible.
Man wore animal skins, shells and necklaces as clothing and ornaments instead of
walking naked.
Development of language for communication, which strengthened man‟s culture and
social bonds.
Development of Rock art. Man painted pictures of the animals he hunted on cave-walls,
as is illustrated at Kondoa and Singida areas in north-central Tanzania and Apollo ii) caves
in Orange state in South Africa.
Identify any three Sangoan tools.
Side-scrappers,
Chisel peaks,
Plane peaks,
Hand-axes,
Flake-tools,
Knives,
Spear-points,
Choppers,
Daggers.
State the importance of fire to early man.
(in what ways did the invention and use of fire change man‟s way of life?)
It provided warmth, particularly during cold spells.
It provided lighting, mainly at night.
Man could now cook his food, which rendered previously poisonous varieties edible.
iv)) Hunting became easier and shorter, as bush-fires pushed animals into confined areas.
Wild animals were frightened and kept away.
It was used in hardening tips of wooden tools, which greatly improved tool making.
It was used in signalling and communication.
It was used in preserving food, e.g. in drying fish and meat.
Man was able to move from the warm Savannah to other areas.
Pottery was baked and hardened.
Describe Man’s life during the Middle Stone Age with regard to:
(a) Food and Clothes,
(b) Shelter.
FOOD AND CLOTHES
Better weapons and hunting methods were used. Large animals like elephants, deer,
rhinos, pigs, buffaloes, hippopotamus and the grazing antelopes were caught.
Food could now be cooked.
Fruits, birds‟ eggs, insects and fish were eaten in addition to meat.
Animal skins, shells and necklaces were worn as clothing and ornaments.
People painted themselves with red ochre and oil.
SHELTER
(a) Man started to identify and have particular places where his family could retire and rest
after the day‟s activities.
(b) For security, man later lived in caves, which had their entrances covered with animalskins
to keep away wind and rain as fire burnt at such entrances at night to keep off wild
animals.
Identify examples of places where Middle Stone Age man and his family could retire
and rest after the day’s activities.
An open site with at least six semi-circular stone-settings, which was found at Orangia in
southern Africa.
The rock-shelters that were scooped out to form hollows, found at Olorgesailie near
Nakuru in Kenya.
Identify examples of caves that were used as shelters by Man during the Middle Stone
Age.
Matupi Cave in the Democratic Republic of Congo,
Gambles cave near Lake Nakuru in Kenya,
Dar Es Sultan cave in southern Africa.
Explain the advances made by early man during the Middle Stone Age with regard to:
(a) Language and Rock art.
(b) Social organization.
LANGUAGE AND ROCK-ART
Man developed language for communication, which strengthened his culture and social
bonds.
Man painted pictures of the animals he hunted on cave-walls, as is illustrated at Kondoa
and Singida areas in north-central Tanzania and Apollo ii) caves in Orange state in South
Africa.
SOCIAL ORGANNIZATION
Families lived in small groups for security reasons.
There was efficient group organization, especially during hunting expeditions.
With the invention of language, early man‟s culture and social bonds were strengthened.
In what two ways was Rock art important to early man during the Middle Stone Age?
Cave-paintings showed keen observation of animal life.
It implied development of some belief in magic. Man believed that his drawings could
control his chances over his prey and that by painting such animal pictures, the hunt would
be successful. Indeed, some pictures contained arrows piercing the animals he hoped to get
for his food.
NEW STONE AGE
Name two hominids with who the New Stone Age was associated.
Homosapiens
Homosapiens Sapiens.
Describe the main tool whose use marked the New Stone Age.
The New Stone age was marked by use of microliths i.e. small pieces of sharp stone fitted
and glued into wood or bone handles, e.g. the Crescent or lunette. Several microliths were
fixed together in wooden or bone shafts to make “composite” tools.
Identify other tools that were used during the New Stone Age apart from Microliths.
Arrowheads,
Sickles,
Spears,
Bows,
Arrows,
Slings,
Harpoons,
Knives,
Swords,
Bone needles,
Daggers.
Describe the culture of early Man during the new Stone Age with regard to:
(a) Food and agriculture,
(b) Language and religion.
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
with better tools and weapons, man‟s fishing techniques improved, although he continued
hunting and gathering fruits and roots for food.
Domestication of plants and animals began, which improved man‟s life.
Adequate and balanced diet, due to which man‟s population increased tremendously.
LANGUAGE AND RELIGION
Man began to depend more on natural forces such as rain for fertility and productivity of
land, aware that drought could easily cause their ruin.
Man began to ponder over issues such as life after death.
Man performed rites and ceremonies believing that they could influence rain, drought,
death and other natural forces.
Identify Archaeological sites in Kenya where evidence of New Stone age religious
practices was found.
At Hyrax hill,
Njoro river cave near Nakuru.
Apart from human fossil remains, identify other New Stone Age items that were
discovered at the places you’ve mentioned.
Tools,
Seeds,
Food.
Describe the social organization/advances of early man during the New Stone age.
Man settled in villages, each of which comprised about 1000 members.
Practices such as body decoration developed. Red ochre was used as body make-up while
beads made of seeds, bones and ostrich egg-shells were worn.
Simple arts and crafts like basketry and smelting of bronze and iron developed. Pots were
made by shaping clay and baking it hard using fire. Man was able to spin and weave
clothing from flax and other natural fibres.
Man made shelters using tree branches and grass, decorating walls and roofs with animal
paintings. Other than caves and rock- shelters, man built huts.
Language and religion developed as man settled.
List the economic advances made by early man during the New Stone age.
Man made and used better tools and weapons,
Man‟s fishing techniques improved, although he continued hunting and gathering fruits
and roots for food.
Domestication of plants and animals began, which improved man‟s life.
Adequate and balanced diet, due to which man‟s population increased tremendously.
Explain early man’s political advances during the New Stone Age.
As a farmer, man started leading a settled life. He built improved semi permanent
shelters.
Because of his social way of life, rules and laws were set up, which later formed the basis
of the civil society.
Because not everyone took up farming, some people specialised in leadership, religion
and the making of crafts.
CHAPTER 3
DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND
ANIMAL DOMESTICATION
BEGINNING OF ANIMAL DOMESTICATION
1. (a) Explain how animal domestication started.
(b) Identify the regions of early civilizations where animal domestication started and the
animals kept there. (Name the early centres of animal domestication and the animals they
first kept).
2. (a) Describe two types of:
The earliest cattle.
The camel.
(b) Identify:
The animals domesticated by man.
The results/benefits of domestication of animals.
BEGINNING OF ANIMAL DOMESTICATION
Animal domestication started about 10,000 years ago in some regions of earliest
civilizations like south-west Asia, Greece, Crete, Algeria, Egypt, North Africa, Sahara, the
Lake Turkana region and southern Africa.
Animal domestication started before crop growing. Development of both crop growing and
animal domestication were by chance.
Animal domestication was gradual. While hunting and fetching water, man established
close ties with, caught, took care of and bred the animals in captivity until they were tamed.
Domestic animals like dogs, goats, sheep, cattle and camels were useful in various ways,
e.g. provision of food and protection. The dog, which was the first animal to be
domesticated, assisted in hunting, driving away dangerous wild animals and herding
livestock.
EARLY CENTRES OF ANIMAL DOMESTICATION
Goats may first have been domesticated in south-west Asia and then Africa around 5000BC
in areas such as Tell Abu Hureyra, Tepe Ali Kosh and De Luren Khuzestan in south-west
Iran, Iraq, Upper Tigris valley, Turkey, southern Jordan, Egypt, Sudan and Libya, after
which it spread to other parts of Asia, and to Europe. Various species of the goat developed.
Sheep were first domesticated at Zawi Chemi Shanid in Iraq around 9000BC and then in
Syria, Egypt, the Sahara region, West Africa and the Indus and Yellow River valleys. It
spread to Europe from Turkey in 7000BC. There are various breeds of sheep in the world
today.
Cattle were first domesticated in south-west Asia around 5800BC in such places as Catal
Huyuk in Turkey, Iraq and Iran, from where it spread to Ethiopia and North Africa. They
are of two types, i.e. the short horned and the long horned.
The camel originated from North America, then it spread to Asia and South America. It was
first domesticated in Arabia in 3000BC. It is often referred to as the “ship of the desert” as it
was commonly used in arid areas. There are two types of the camel. These are:
(a) The one humped, found in the Middle East, Northern China and Africa.
(b) The two humped, found in central Asia.
BENEFITS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS
Regular food supply e.g. meat and milk.
Clothing, beddings and other products from animal skins.
Hooves and horns, which were used as containers, communication and musical instruments.
Animal bones for making tools, ornaments, needles and weapons.
Camels, donkeys and horses enabled man to travel longer distances faster with heavier
loads.
Increased crop yields as oxen and donkeys were used for ploughing.
Animals provided manure for the crop farms.
Use of the dog for protection from dangerous animals.
Man now led a more settled life as hunting was now limited since the animals he needed for
food were at his doorstep.
Man now lived in families and villages.
Domestication of plants and animals occurred in the Neolithic period, although animal
domestication came first.
THE BEGINNING OF AGRICULTURE
What is agriculture?
Agriculture is cultivation of crops to satisfy human needs.
Identify the factors that made it necessary for human beings to discover agriculture.
(Explain the factors that led to (facilitated) development of agriculture).
(Increased human population, for which the natural environment could not provide adequate
food.
Climatic changes, which hindered pure reliance on nature for livelihood.
Competition for food among and between people and animals.
Calamities such as floods and bush fires, which cleared vegetation for wild animals.
Describe the two theories that explain how man discovered crop growing and animal
keeping.
i) The Diffusion theory, which states that crop growing and animal keeping developed in
south-west Asia and then spread to the rest of the world.
ii) That which states that agriculture must have developed independently in various parts of
the world.
Explain the stages in which crop growing developed.
(Explain how crop growing started/began.)
Crop growing must have developed in stages as follows:
Man may have accidentally selected plants he considered more nutritious and tasted better
than or were superior to others.
It was discovered that wild crops germinated and grew along river valleys, where water and
fertile soil were ample.
Crops grew faster as other plants and bushes were cut and weeded out.
Farmers made and used tools to clear bush, dig and plant the seed, which was quite
involving.
The crops had to be harvested and then stored in the homes.
Various crops adapted to diverse environmental conditions and gradually spread to other
areas.
Identify the early centres of agriculture in the world and the crops domesticated there.
In the Fertile Crescent (south-west Asia), which comprises present-day Iraq, Turkey,
Lebanon and parts of Iran and Syria, wheat and Barley were the first crops grown.
In Asia and Africa, particularly the Ganges valley in India, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia
and the Niger, diverse rice varieties were domesticated.
In tropical America i.e. Central America, southern America and Mexico, yams and maize
were the first crops grown.
In Africa, particularly Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Algeria, West Africa and the Nile Valley
in Egypt, the Guinea yam and varieties of rice, millet and sorghum were domesticated.
Analyse cultivation of the crops cited in the various centres you’ve mentioned.
(Explain how the crops you cited in the above-mentioned centres came to be cultivated by
man.)
Wheat grew wildly in different types. It was first harvested as Brittle Wheat: a type that was
gradually replaced by „emmer‟ wheat, which then spread from the Mesopotamian plains by
6000BC and reached Egypt by 3000BC and to the Mediterranean region, central Asia, India
and southern Europe.
Barley was widely grown in Mureybat on the Euphratese in Syria from 700-600BC. It then
spread to Ali Kosh in Iran, Jericho in Jordan and Fayum in Egypt. By about 2000BC,
cultivation of barley had spread to India and China.
Yams may have been the first of the Root and tuber crops to be domesticated. They were
grown in South-east Asia by 9000BC. The Brazilians grew a different variety. Africa grew
its own variety i.e. the White Guinea yam, which was a wild variety found in the Ivory
Coast.
Maize was first grown around 5000BC at Tehuacan in Mexico from where it spread to
South America, Africa, Asia and Europe. It was introduced by the Portuguese in Africa,
where it became a staple food unlike America and Europe where it is largely a fodder crop.
Rice originated from Thailand around 3500BC, from where its production spread to India,
Europe and Japan. In Asia, Oryza Glaterima rice is widely cultivated. The African variety
of rice was grown along the upper Niger around 1500BC, from where it spread to other
areas within the region.
Bulrush millet was first grown at Hoggat in southern Algeria around 6000BC. By 1500BC,
sorghum was grown around the Sudan, the area between the Nile and Lake Chad and other
parts of West Africa, Ethiopia and east Africa (from where finger millet originated).
EARLY AGRICULTURE IN MESOPOTAMIA
In Mesopotamia, which today is part of Iraq, food production began around 8000BC having
been introduced by settlers from the Iranian plateau. Jarmo in the Kurdish foothills
represents the earliest stage of Agriculture. As men went hunting and gathering, the women
they left behind may have experimented with wild grasses that grew around their compound
until they found out and grew the edible plants, paving the way for organized agriculture.
1. (a) Identify:
The animals domesticated in Mesopotamia.
Crops grown in Mesopotamia.
(b) Name:
Two methods of irrigations used in Mesopotamia.
The farm implements that were used in Mesopotamia.
© Explain the factors that facilitated agriculture in Mesopotamia.
2. Analyse farming activities in Mesopotamia. (Explain how farming activities were carried
out in Mesopotamia).
FACTORS THAT FACILITATED AGRICULTURE IN MESOPOTAMIA
Use of water from the Tigris and Euphratese for irrigation. At first, Sumer in southern
Mesopotamia was unsuitable for farming as it had very little rain. But the Sumerians
skilfully dug canals to channel water from the two rivers to summer, boosted by the
Shadoof or Bucket method of irrigation.
The rich fertile silt deposited on the lower Tigris and Euphratese river valleys and soils in
the region, which were mostly fertile.
Good leadership by, among others, Sargon the great and Hamurabi the law giver.
Invention and use of farming implements like the ox-drawn plough and the seed-drill in
place of digging sticks and stone hoes fastened with sticky earth onto a short wooden handle
for tilling the land as well as baked clay sickles, baskets and pots in reaping and storing the
harvest.
The fact that the region was endowed with indigenous crops and animals like wheat, dates,
figs, olives, vines, palms, onions, melons, cucumber, ducks, pigs, gees, horses, cattle, sheep,
goats, a variety of vegetables and a variety of grains.
Heavy rains in the Zaggiroes mountains, which caused the much needed floods on the
Euphratese and Tigris river valleys.
Reclamation of more land for agricultural purposes by skilfully draining and directing water
through dykes, ditches and canals from swampy land to the dry land, making both
cultivable.
FARMING ACTIVITIES IN MESOPOTAMIA
The Sumerian civilization, which was thriving in Mesopotamia by around 3000BC
comprised twelve separate city states. Farming, fishing, crafts making and keeping of
livestock were most practised.
The city states were surrounded with walls, outside of which were farming fields, on which
the urban people depended.
Most land was in the form of large estates belonging either to the rulers or to the wealthy
classes. The workers were given small plots and seeds, farm implements and livestock in
return for labour and surplus produce to the land owners.
Wheeled carts were used to transport farm produce to various storage points.
Goats and cattle provided milk while sheep supplied wool: Mesopotamia‟s main textile
fabric.
City-states often fought over water rights.
What were the consequences/RESULTS of early agriculture in Mesopotamia?
Invention of writing (Cuneiform) and Arithmetic for better farming management, e.g.
accounts on rents paid by Tennant farmers, the size of the herds, etc.
Increased food production.
Population increase, particularly along river valleys, arising from healthy feeding.
Emergence of urban centres like Uruk, Eridu, Nippur, Kish and Babylon.
Development and expansion of trade due to surplus agricultural produce.
Specialization in crafts, religion and other non-food producing endeavours, as not all could
engage in farming.
Invention and use of the wheel, which improved transport and pottery.
Development of science and mathematics, particularly in measurement of time, distance and
area.
Invention and improvement of farming tools such as the plough, which eased and increased
agriculture. For example, it reduced the number of people needed to cultivate a large piece
of land.
Development in astronomy, arising from the need to predict rains, floods and eclipses,
which led to the invention of the calendar.
Development of law.:
Discovery and use of metals to make farm tools, which revolutionized agriculture. Bronze
tools were made and used in Mesopotamia as early as 3000BC.
Explain two main factors that facilitated development of law in Mesopotamia.
Advances in religious practices. Mesopotamians had many gods, most of who were
connected to agriculture, e.g. Ninurta the god of floods.
Compilation of cords of law to limit conflict in their civilization, e.g. Hamurabi‟s law.
EARLY AGRICULTURE IN AFRICA
In Africa, agriculture first spread to Egypt along the Nile valley, where it was practised as
early as 700BC.
1. Identify:
The animals domesticated in ancient Egypt.
Crops grown in ancient Egypt.
2. Identify the farm implements that were used in Egypt.
3. Explain the factors that promoted (facilitated) agriculture in ancient Egypt.
The river Nile, which provided the water needed for irrigation and for domestic use.
The fertile soil and the warm climate of the Nile Valley.
Invention and use of irrigation technique, characterised by Shadoof and Basin methods.
Availability of food crops that had already become indigenous to Egypt, e.g. wheat and
barley.
Availability of many tameable animals in Egypt e.g. goats and sheep.
Good and able political leaders, who directed agricultural production, distribution of food
and other crafts. The government owned huge granaries and go-downs for storage of grain,
animals, cloth and metals for use in times of scarcity.
Natural protection of the Nile valley from foreign invasion by the Libyan desert to the west,
the Nubian desert and the Nile cataracts to the south and the harbourless coast of the Nile
delta on the north.
Egypt‟s close proximity to Mesopotamia (the first centre of agricultural development),
which encouraged a lot of borrowing.
Use of implements like sticks, knives, axes, sickles, wooden and bronze hoes and others of
their kind, which eased farming.
Farmers had several seasons in a year and, because of irrigation, no longer depended on
annual Nile Valley floods.
Introduction and adoption of iron technology in Africa by 1000AD, which enabled the
Egyptians to make and use iron tools like ploughs, which made farming more efficient.
Describe farming activities in ancient Egypt.
Various crops were grown, such as wheat, barley, fruits, flax, beans, vegetables, cucumbers,
onions,, lentils, dates, figs and grapes.
The Broadcasting method of planting (scattering seed on land) was used. Animals were
driven over the fields to cover the seed in earth for germination or budding.
Shifting cultivation was practised before the human population increased, but more settler
cultivation was encouraged as days went by.
Various animals were kept such as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys,, poultry and bees.
The King was regarded as the guardian for food supply for all. some senior government
officers were assigned the responsibility of ensuring food security.
Describe the irrigation methods practised in ancient Egypt.
Irrigation technique in ancient Egypt was characterised by Shadoof and Basin methods in
addition to construction of dykes to direct water to the farms during drought. A Shadoof is a
wooden device consisting of a long pole swinging up and down between two supporting
wooden posts. On one end of the pole was hung a heavy weight and a skin bucket at the
other. The bucket was pulled down and dipped in water by a person. The weight on the
other side would then cause the bucket to rise up to another person above, who would
empty the water into the canals, which then directed it to the fields.
Describe two senior government officers that were assigned the responsibility of ensuring
food security in ancient Egypt.
The Master of Largesse was responsible for all livestock in the country.
The head of the exchequer ensured distribution of seeds and livestock when agricultural
output was poor.
Explain the impact of early agriculture in Egypt.
Improved farming, leading to increased and regular food supply.
Rise in population due to healthy feeding.
Development of writing, arithmetic and Geometry for keeping records and accounts to
manage agricultural resources.
Invention of irrigation technique, which made the Nile valley an all-season farming area.
Emergence of urban centres along the Nile valley, such as Memphis, Akataten, Thebes and
Aswan.
Invention of farming implements such as the plough, sickle, etc.
Development of Astronomy and other sciences, as a way of predicting floods.
Development of religion, for divine protection of the farms.
Emergence of a new class of people, constituted by priests and soldiers, which produced
scribes and other Egyptian elites.
Specialization of some people in non-food producing activities e.g. tool making, crafts and
geometry.
Increased trading activities due to surplus food production.
Permanent settlement by farmers, which improved living standards as settled communities
accumulated more property than nomads.
EARLY AGRICULTURE IN SUBSAHARAN AFRICA
Identify the crops cultivated in sub-Saharan Africa.
Millet,
Sorghum,
Eleusine,
Semeseme,
African rice,
Yams,
Ensete,
Barley,
Chick peas,
Varieties of fruits,
Varieties of vegetables.
Name the animals domesticated in sub-Saharan Africa.
Cattle,
Goats,
Sheep
Camels.
Discuss early farming activities in sub-Saharan Africa.
In West Africa, domestic animals and serial agriculture were acquired from the then fertile
and green Sahara by 1500BC. African rice, which was first cultivated in the Middle Niger
lake region, was among the crops grown. Yams may have been grown earlier than any other
crops.
In North Africa, Ensete, barley, chick peas and cattle were cultivated and domesticated,
particularly in the Lalibea area to the east of Lake Tana in Ethiopia. Other plants were
brought to Ethiopia from the middle East across the Red Sea.
In east Africa, especially at the Ileret area on the north-eastern shores of lake Turkana, in
Kenya, cattle, goats, sheep and camels among others were kept between 3000-1000BC.
Food production was most practised in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania.
In the Congo basin, food production started late, around 1000BC, probably because the
region had low population and plenty of wild food varieties.
Some crops cultivated in sub-Saharan Africa spread to the Middle East. For instance,
semeseme reached Mesopotamia from the southern fringe of the Sahara before 2350BC.
Much of southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania were in the past inhabited by Cushitic
herdsmen, who may have had agricultural knowledge. The regions are now inhabited by
Nilotic and Bantu speakers.
EARLY AGRICULTURE IN ASIA
Name the places associated with early agriculture in Asia.
The Yellow River valley,
The Middle East,
The Indus River valley.
Identify the animals that were domesticated in Asia.
Zebu cattle,
Water buffaloes,
Elephants,
Horses,
Goats,
Sheep,
Pigs.
Assess/analyse early agriculture in Asia.
In Asia, intensive irrigation was practised along river valleys in the Indus plain, where food
supply was adequate. Cattle keepers from central Asia gradually settled down to farming in
India.
Garden cultivators of south-east Asia grew rice, which boosted productivity at the Ganges
valley.
Zebu cattle, water buffaloes, elephants, horses, goats, sheep and pigs were domesticated in
the Ganges region.
However, because early farmers had not yet mastered weather patterns, they were victims to
long periods of drought and floods. Their crop yields were low due to lack of scientific
knowledge.
In spite of these and other problems, the positive agricultural outcome in Asia was unhindered.
EARLY AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE
Identify the crops and animals that were cultivated and domesticated in ancient Europe.
Beans,
Peas,
Lentils,
Oats,
Rye.
Name the farm implements used in Europe as early agriculture developed.
Hoes,
Digging sticks,
Ploughs.
Analyse/Discuss early farming activities in Europe.
In Europe, food production started at about the same time as in Egypt.
The Mediterranean region favoured extension of initial farming methods from the Middle
East, from where early food producers passed into southern Europe.
European farmers practised shifting cultivation. In areas near river valleys, irrigation was
practised.
Hoes and sticks were used, though ploughs were later introduced for tilling land.
Beans, peas and lentils were grown in the Neolithic times, but oats and rye were major
serial crops in the Iron Age. Keeping of sheep was widespread.
IMPACT OF EARLY AGRICULTURE
Explain the impact of the discovery of agriculture.
(What were the results of development of early agriculture?)
Population increase due to healthy feeding.
Change of man from hunter-gatherer to food producer. Man no longer relied totally on the
environment for his survival
Adequate food production, with a surplus for future use.
Improved cultivation methods in addition to invention and use of better farm implements
like ploughs. More land was put into use through dyking and irrigation. These helped
remedy the problem of drought, floods and inadequate rainfall.
Development of High Breed seeds and better quality livestock, with more yields.
Better settled life, with less migration.
Emergence of villages, towns, trading and urban centres.
Development of religion, laws, rules and regulations to safeguard their fields, flocks and
other aspects of life.
More division of labour and specialization in different crafts.
Development of scientific and technological knowledge and skills, influenced by agriculture
as farmers had to invent and improve farm implements, interpret weather patterns, divide
land geometrically, count seasons and record agricultural produce using the calendar.
Development of numerous architectural designs to decorate various buildings in towns and
other centres of human settlement.
Formation of distinct social classes as members of various working groups interacted.
Development and provision of formal education, particularly for the upper class of society.
CHAPTER 4
AGRARIAN REVOLUTION
Define the term Agrarian Revolution.
Agrarian Revolution refers to radical changes and improvements in agriculture and animal
domestication.
Describe the characteristics of agriculture in Western Europe before the 18th century.
Agrarian revolution started with invention and use of machines from mid 18th century, when
food production increased as the number of workers on the farm reduced. By the Neolithic
period, agriculture had reached Europe, particularly Switzerland, Spain, Italy and Turkey,
where rice and barley were mainly grown.
The following were the characteristics of agriculture in Western Europe before the 18th
century:
Land belonged to the feudal lords, the church and the royal family.
Land was rented out to peasants, who paid by their labour.
Paths and cart tracks criss-crossed the land.
Farmers used the Broadcasting methods of planting.
Small scale farming and intercropping (growing of more than one crop on a piece of land at
the same time) was practised.
Farmers practised the Open Field system.
THE OPEN FIELD SYSTEM
Describe the Open Field system as practised by farmers in Western Europe before the
18th century.
(Explain farming in Britain as practised under the Open Field system.)
A piece of land was divided into three portions: one for growing corn and wheat, the second
for beans, peas, barley, oats and bush wheat, while the third was left fallow to regain
fertility. Sometimes, this third piece was left for grazing and homes.
Each portion of land was divided into several strips, depending on the number of peasants in
a village.
Each peasant had his own strip, on which he was meant to cultivate just enough for the
needs of his family since agriculture had not yet been commercialized.
1. What were the disadvantages of the Open Field system of farming? (Explain the
disadvantages of the traditional system of farming in Britain before the 18th century.)
It did not allow efficient farming as land was not fully utilized.
Division of land into small strips discouraged use of farm machinery.
The existence of fallow pieces of land, cart tracks and paths that went through the unfenced
fields wasted land.
It was difficult to control diseases or to practise selective breeding since livestock grazed
together.
The broadcasting method of planting led to wastage of seeds as some were eaten by birds
and rodents.
Families had to travel long distances to reach their fields as pieces of land were scattered all
over.
Agricultural yield was low and could not meet the growing urban population‟s food
demand.
AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN
From mid 18th century onwards, scientific ideas and new techniques of farming were
applied as a result of the scientific and industrial revolutions.
The changes that marked the Agrarian Revolution in Britain.
(What were the characteristics of the agrarian revolution in Britain?)
The land enclosure system (fencing and hedging of plots), which replaced the Open
Field system in 1750.
Mechanization, i.e. use of new farming methods, which required large farms as
opposed to the previous small strips.
Abolition of fallows. Farmers could no longer leave the land fallow to regain its
fertility as was the tradition. Increase in population meant demand for more food,
which required most of the land to be put to use.
Introduction of crop rotation. Lord Viscount Townsend developed a four-course
rotation system called the Norfolk, which consisted of barley, clover, turnips and
wheat on the same plot of land over a four-year period, by which land retained or
gained but would not lose its fertility.
The introduction of intercropping. It was discovered that growing crops like maize
and beans on a given piece of land at the same time enabled land to regain fertility,
since such crops did not require the same nutrients from the soil and they grew well if
planted together.
Use of fertilizer. This was pioneered by Lord Viscount Townsend, who recommended
manuring of land to increase yields per hectare.
Use of machines. This changed agriculture from a small scale subsistence activity to a
large scale business for both subsistence and commercial purposes.
Selective breeding of livestock. This was invented between 1725-1795 by Robert
Bakewell.
Introduction and all-time availability of cattle feed, which helped ensure supply of
fresh meat all the year round.
The animal breeds that resulted from Robert Bakewell’s Selective Breeding technique.
New improved cattle breeds like Devon, the Short-Horn, Hereford, Ayshire and
Aberdeen Angus
Sheep breeds such as the Leicester, Shropshire, Suffolk and Oxford.
Pig breeds like Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth.
The inventions/innovations that were made during Agrarian revolution in Britain.
Jethro Tull’s invention of the Seed Drill and the horse-drawn hoe in 1791,, with which
seeds could be sown in rows, which eased interrow cropping and kept the land
between the rows clean.
Introduction of the Iron plough in place of the wooden plough in 1825.
Formation of the Royal Agricultural Society in 1838, which publicised new ideas and
techniques of farming all over Britain. This encouraged adoption of modern methods
of farming.
Opening of a super phosphates factory in London in 1843 by Sir john Bennet Lawes,
following the earlier discovery by scientists that Nitrogen Phosphorus (in phosphates)
and Potassium (in Potash) are nutrients for all plants.
Andrew Meikles’ invention of the Mechanical Thresher in 1876, which improved
Patrick Bell’s earlier invention of the Mechanical Reaper, which replaced the sickle in
harvesting corn. A Binder was added to the reaper so that corn was cut and bound at
the same time. Other modern machines like tractors and the combined harvester could
reap and thresh corn simultaneously.
THE LAND ENCLOSURE SYSTEM
How the Enclosure system serve as an agricultural landmark in Britain
It was necessitated by use of new farming methods that required large farms as
opposed to the previous small strips.
Rich farmers bought up all the land and, through the Enclosure Movement, demanded
that land be enclosed by fencing.
Through the Enclosure act of 1750, the British government mandated farmers to fence
their land. This enabled the rich to acquire a lot more land and created large farms
that were easily managed as farmers could specialize in crop or animal production,
which was highly profitable.
The farmers that bought up the land got title deeds, which they could use to borrow
money from firms to improve their farms.
Peasants, who could not buy their own estates were evicted from and lost their land,
which was sold off to rich landlords.
There was displacement and a lot more hardship for those who lost their land as they
had to sell their labour to the rich farmers and to the factories in the urban as others
emigrated to the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
There were many changes in lifestyle as agriculture was transformed from a simple
human occupation to a complex highly profitable business.
Fallow land was cultivated and wasteland reclaimed. Food could now be grown round
the year due to increased irrigation.
Cultivation methods and equipment improved, which meant adequate and surplus
food production.
By 1800, all farmland in Britain was enclosed, which greatly reduced the risk of
animal and crop diseases. Aggressive farmers could now increase production without
the hindrance of their neighbours.
The results of Agrarian revolution In Britain
Improved farming methods, which led to increased food production.
Population increase as food was abundant. Life expectancy was higher too.
A large variety of crops e.g. clover, potatoes, beans, maize, vegetables and citrus fruits.
New animal breeds such as the Friesian cow as well as Leicester and Suffolk sheep,
among others.
large scale farming in place of subsistence farming.
Mechanization of farming as cultivation of large farms was adopted.
Rural-urban migration as peasants were compelled by the Enclosure movement to sell
their land to rich farmers.
Availability of raw materials required in the agro based industries, thus contributing
to the industrial revolution.
Expansion of both local and international trade
Expansion of the transport network.
Enhancement of research and scientific innovations.
Migration of some of the landless to the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa and other places overseas.
Minimization of pests, diseases and epidemics.
high standard of life, particularly for farmers due to increased agricultural income.
Availability of food and feeds round the year.
British culture was spread and administered overseas.
Emergence and growth of more and more urban centres due to rise of a non-food
producing population.
The negative effects of the Agrarian revolution.
Land was concentrated in the hands of a few rich people, leaving the wider majority
under poverty and insecurity due to forced sales of their land.
The fact that work, for which those who lost their land had to look, was not easy to
find, for the landless outnumbered the landlords by a greater margin.
Most of those who migrated overseas died due to exposure to strange climates.
Some of the emergent non-food producing population indulged into permissive and
unbecoming behaviour, a lot of which remains to date.
Some fertilizer and pesticides, such as DDT, became destructive to the environment.
Urban centres were overcrowded, with poor living conditions due to influx of poor
landless peasants into towns.
The idea of colonization stems from Agrarian revolution since almost all places where
British emigrants went to after the Agrarian Revolution, such as the USA, Canada,
Australia,, New Zealand, South Africa, etc became British colonies.
AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN CONTINENTAL EUROPE
Reasons why farming in continental Europe was not as advanced as it was in Britain.
Continental European countries learnt modern methods of farming from Britain.
Initially, farming in continental Europe was not as advanced as it was in Britain
because:
The French were affected by frequent wars.
Italy was restricted to Spain, which was prospecting for minerals in South America.
Holland, Denmark and Germany were involved in large scale world trade, which was
more profitable at that time.
Continental European farmers went for practical scientific and agricultural research
in England.
How Continental Europe contribute to development of farming.
Continental European countries imported new crops from the Americas.
Agricultural science and research were advanced, leading to a fivefold increase in
yields. for instance, soil was fertilized with phosphates-rich Guano from the pacific
islands and nitrates from Chile.
More advances were made in medical sciences.
Continental European farmers improved livestock breeding through scientific
practices. Today, continental Europe is known for their high quality animals, e.g. the
Friesian cow from Holland.
The continental European countries that sent their farmers to Britain for practical
scientific and agricultural research.
France,
Germany,
Holland,
Spain,
Italy.
The crops that were imported by continental European countries from the Americas.
Wheat,
Barley,
Peas,
Oats,
Beans,
Maize,
Vines,
Potatoes,
Subtropical citrus fruits.
Two advances in medical science that add up to continental Europe’s contribution to
development of farming.
Louis Pasteur made great advances in the control of plant and animal diseases. He
discovered that most diseases are caused by bacteria and therefore sterilization of food
such as milk through boiling can help keep it fresh and bacteria free for long periods.
Justus Von Liebig from Germany, urged for greater reliance on agricultural
chemistry.
The impact of Agrarian Revolution in Continental Europe.
Adequate food supply to manufacturing towns and cities.
Introduction and use of farm machinery, which compelled people to seek employment
in industries.
Rural-urban migration, which provided ample labour for factories and industries.
Adequate and surplus food production due to improved agricultural methods.
Improved living standards, with higher life expectancy due to efficiency and better
health standards.
Doubling of the European population due to general peace, stability and medical care.
Emergence of a non-food producing population, which took up industrial and other
jobs.
Eventual establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC), which always
has surplus food and has virtually advanced in export trade due to highly mechanized
and scientific farming.
AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN NORTH AMERICA
The Americas is the origin of many crops in the world today. Indigenous Americans
(American Indians) were subsistence farmers. They grew a wide range of crops. From
the 17th century, many people, particularly from Western Europe, migrated into
America, bringing with them skills, enterprise and enthusiasm. They took and
established animal breeds and crop varieties, which led to increased export trade.
The countries that make up North America.
Canada,
Mexico,
The United States of America.
The crops that originated from the Americas.
Maize,
Yams,
Potatoes,
Beans,
Pineapples,
Cocoa,
Tomatoes,
Cotton,
Tobacco,
Cassava.
The methods that made up Agriculture in North America.
(Explain the American contribution to Agrarian revolution (In what ways did the
Americas contribute to Agrarian revolution?))
The agriculture that developed in North America was a blend of new and old methods
such as:
Recognition of individual land ownership rights.
Introduction and use of slave labour in clearing forests apart from other forms of farm
work.
Greater freedom of settlers.
Modern plantation and estate farming.
Crop zoning and rotation.
The use of farm machinery and high breed seeds.
Extensive education on agricultural economics.
Increased use of fertilizers.
The problems encountered by new settlers in the USA.
Unfortunately, the pioneer years in America were difficult, for the new settlers faced
many problems such as:
Many deaths due to diseases and exposure to strange climate.
Hostility from the American Indians.
Heavy losses due to lack of knowledge on the suitable crops for the area.
Great difficulty in exporting food crops and beef products to the American cities and
elsewhere as the food often went bad before reaching the market.
Into what farming zones is north America divided? (Describe the farming zones into
which north America is divided).
North America is divided into farming zones like:
The cotton and corn belts,
The wheat areas,
The dairy areas,
The ranch areas,
The livestock areas,
The rice areas,
The potato areas,
The citrus fruits areas, etc.
Agrarian revolution in North America.
(Explain the process of Agrarian revolution in north America).
Early European settlers went into farming, mainly to meet the demand for raw
material in England and the entire Europe. For example, in Maryland and Virginia,
tobacco was produced. Rice and Indigo were grown as major crops in Georgia and
South Carolina. There was large scale cotton growing in North Carolina, Arkansas,
Louisiana and Texas. Other crops grown include sugarcane, fruits, vegetables, wheat
and corn. The drier north-eastern parts of the USA specialized in ranching and
dairying. The south emerged as a cotton zone, the central region as a maize zone and
the north-western region as a wheat growing area.
Before mechanization, Agriculture in the USA, particularly cotton and sugarcane
plantations, depended on slave labour from West Africa.
Agriculture in the USA underwent great changes that promoted her development in
industry, transport and urbanization.
The inventions made in Agriculture in the USA during the Agrarian Revolution.
In 1791, the Spinning Mule was invented in Britain to separate cotton seed from the
fibre, to spin the thread and to weave the cloth, all at the same time. This transformed
farming in the USA tremendously.
In 1834, John Perkins invented the Refrigerator, which was perfected by John Gorrie
and a Frenchman called Ferdinand Carre. The refrigerator preserves food by keeping
it under low temperatures. With it, farmers could now transport and export large
quantities of food crops and beef products.
In 1837, John Deere from Illinois invented the Steel plough, which was stronger than
the wooden and iron ploughs and could be used on hard ground. In 1847, Deere
opened a factory for mass production of much needed steel ploughs.
In 1839, American businessmen invented the skill of heating and storing food in
airtight tins for it to last for many years without going bad. This, together with the
refrigerator, solved the problem of produce failing to reach the market in good time
and condition. The produce could now draw good prices and big profits.
In 1847, Cyrus McCormick established a factory in Chicago for manufacturing
reapers, which he had invented in 1831 In Virginia. Daniel Massey in Canada also
invented the reaper. Cormick’s invention of the reaper was negatively received by
slave owners, who preferred cheap human labour.
In 1862, the Homestead Act was passed, which legalized individual land ownership
and authorised the federal government to grant financial assistance and loans for
farmers to buy and develop land. with this, farmers took up large scale farming.
In the 1890s, transport and communication systems and the entire infrastructure were
stepped up, enabling American farmers to easily transport their products and acquire
fertilizers, machinery and other necessities much faster than ever before.
How the invention of the spinning Mule in 1791 transform farming in the USA
Cotton farmers got quick big profits.
More land was opened up for cotton cultivation.
Cotton yields got higher as improved methods were applied.
Cotton became so valuable that it sustained employment for many people in England.
How inventions in and stepping up of transport and communication systems in the
1890s boosted agricultural activities in the USA.
Alexander Graham Bell’s invention of the telegraph and telephone by 1877 further
enhanced communication.
Michael Faraday’s invention of electricity and Thomas Edison’s invention of the
electric lump in 1879 as well as discovery of oil further provided the fuel required by
farmers and industrialists for agricultural purposes.
Agriculture and industry were further boosted by the full development and regular or
mass production and sale of motor vehicles to the public by 1891 and the invention of
the aeroplane by the Wright brothers in 1903, all of which turned the world into a
global village.
How features of American agriculture.
(Identify the characteristics of Agrarian revolution in the Americas).
Large scale farming for adequate food supply and provision of raw materials for
industries.
Zoning and diversification, due to differences in climate and soil fertility, with various
areas specializing in certain farming activities e.g. ranching and dairying in the drier
north-eastern parts, cotton cultivation in the south, maize growing in the central
region and wheat cultivation in the north-west.
Heavy investment in the field of science and research. This resulted in better high
breed seeds and different strains of livestock. As the use of fertilizer increased, pest
control measures were invented.
Monumental changes and milestones in the development of agriculture in the world,
fuelled by peasant emigration into the USA from Europe, bringing skills, enterprise
and enthusiasm as well as animal breeds and crop varieties.
Export trade. American agriculture largely comprised cash crops like sugarcane,
cotton, tobacco and indigo, grown to provide raw materials for European (espe cially
British) industries.
Grants and loans to farmers, for buying and developing land.
Explain the impact of the Agrarian revolution in the USA.
Diversification of agriculture through the introduction of new crops and animals from
Britain.
Inventions, e.g. the steel plough by John Deere and the reaper by Cyrus McCormick.
Use of fertilizers and high breed seeds.
Improved food production.
Expansion of agriculture-related industries.
Mechanization of farming to replace slave labour.
Improvement and expansion of transport network.
Increased population due to adequate food supply and emigration into the USA from
Western Europe.
Enhancement of research and scientific inventions, particularly in the field of
agriculture.
Increased trade between the USA and Western Europe.
FOOD SITUATION IN AFRICA AND THE REST OF THE THIRDWORLD
Most third world countries underwent colonialism. This greatly weakened their
economies, which explains why most of them had very poor food situations by the time
they got their independence.
The main causes of food shortage in Africa.
Population growth rate that is higher than that of food production.
Poor land use and inefficient agricultural practices.
Adverse climatic or weather conditions e.g. floods and long spells of drought.
Desertification or formation of wasteland due to destructive human activities e.g.
deforestation, overgrazing and pollution.
Concentration on cash crop growing, with least or no attention to cultivation of food
crops.
rural-urban migration, whereby the innovative young people leave farms in the
countryside to search for better means of livelihood in towns.
Lack of inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides.
Political instability arising from coups as well as civil and international wars, which
causes diversion of attention from production to dependence.
Declining popularity of indigenous crops like cassava, yams, millet and sorghum,
which are resistant to drought and diseases. farmers have resorted to cultivation of
exotic crops like maize, rice and wheat, which may be unsuitable for particular areas,
causing artificial food shortage.
Poor or lack of storage facilities, which leads to great postharvest losses.
Foreign debt burden as well as over-reliance on foreign aid, which have created a
Dependency syndrome and apathy towards problem solving.
Poor economic planning as governments have no sound food policies. Government
funds are often put to development of unviable industrial projects.
Poor land tenure systems, whereby, in most countries, most arable land is in the hands
of a few influential people while more industrious farmers own very small pieces,
which they have exhausted due to overuse.
The HIV-AIDS scourge, which has caused death of many among the work force, who
are in their prime years and are economically productive, particularly in the
agricultural sector.
Lack of funds for carrying out irrigation and other forms of land reclamation,
purchase of machinery, or hiring labour.
xvi) Colonial education, which was geared towards white collar jobs in urban centres
and neglected manual jobs such as farming.
xvii) Poor infrastructure, particularly transport and communication, which hinders or
undermines transportation of food from one place to another.
xviii) High dependency ratio, whereby the population in the third world largely
comprises people that are not involved in food production.
What are the effects of food shortage in Africa and the Third world?
Starvation, which has been widely experienced.
The Refugee crisis. As people flee or migrate from their home countries mainly due to
starvation, countries to which they flee (host-countries) strain their resources in trying
to accommodate such refugees.
Social problems such as cattle raids among pastoralist communities, which have
caused heavy loss of life and property.
Dependence on food aid.
Disruption of children’s education due to constant search for food.
Poor economic development as hungry people can hardly concentrate on work.
Stagnation of the agro based industries such as sugar milling factories.
A lot of unemployment since most industries in the third world are agro based e.g.
baking and confectionery, milk processing, etc..
The possible solutions to the problem of food shortage in Africa and the rest of the Third
world.
Land reclamation to produce and bring more land to substantial use, e.g. Yala swamp
reclamation scheme in Kenya and desert reclamation in Libya.
Irrigation as well as use of fertilizer and machinery for better yields, as is the case in
Egypt, India and Pakistan.
formulation and adoption of sound national food policies to open the agricultural
sector to new ideas on better food production.
Introduction of new methods of farming rather than relying on traditional ones, most
of which are outdated.
Giving farmers incentives in form of loans, grants and other subsidies for the
development of farms as well as buying of fertilizer, machinery and other farm inputs.
Reduction of taxes on farm inputs to encourage more farmers to take up food
production.
Educating farmers on good farming methods e.g. soil conservation, intercropping,
terracing and afforestation to provide soil cover and reverse the trend in soil erosion.
Intensive agricultural research to produce cheaper affordable fertilizer and to develop
better crop varieties, adaptable to various climatic conditions and which can mature
quickly.
Assistance to farmers in marketing their produce as well as subsidizing expensive farm
inputs.
Stressing self sufficiency by devoting sizable portions of family land to cultivation of
food crops through strong government food policies.
Building good storage facilities and educating farmers on better storage practices to
minimize loss before, during and after harvest.
Control and elimination of pests and diseases, which are a great hindrance to farming.
Improvement of infrastructure and transport systems as well as better pricing of farm
produce to the advantage of farmers.
Cultivation of indigenous crops for provision of food where exotic ones fail.
Peaceful conflict resolution for enhancement of democracy and an end to civil and
other forms of strife for alleviation of poverty and devotion of resources to food
production instead of funding useless wars.
The steps taken to remedy food shortage in Kenya.
Extensive research by research bodies such as the Kenya Agricultural Research
Institute (KARI), which have resulted in production of crop varieties that are resistant
to drought and diseases. A good example here is Katumani maize.
Introduction of genetically engineered crops and animals, which are resistant to pests
and diseases.
Establishment of agricultural training institutions e.g. Edgerton University, the
University of Nairobi and the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
Technology for training and production of experts such as Agricultural officers,
Veterinary doctors and horticultural experts.
Inclusion of the teaching of agriculture in the school curriculum to educate learners
about new and better techniques of farming that should boost food production in
Kenya.
Educating people on the need for family planning so that families only have the
number of children they can feed and provide for.
Formulation of a Food Security policy for enhancement of food production and to
ensure that a certain amount of food is kept for emergencies and that unscrupulous
businessmen do not export certain foodstuffs when the country needs them.
CHAPTER 5
THE PEOPLES OF KENYA UPTO THE 19TH
CENTURY
1. (a) Name the places in Kenya where tools attributed to Homoerectus have been found.
(b) Name the Late Stone Age tools that have been found in Kenya.
2. Identify the types of evidence by which Kenya is proved to have been inhabited by
humankind as far back as two million years ago or earlier.
Tools attributed to Homohabilis were found in Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana.
Hand axes, cleavers and other tools attributed to Homoerectus have been found at
Olorgesailie near lake Magadi, Mtongwe near Mombasa, around lakes Victoria and Turkana
and at Kariandusi.
Tools associated with the late Stone age such as the Crescent, arrowheads, pottery, bone
harpoons and ornamental egg shells have been found near lake Naivasha, lake Nakuru,
Lukenya hills and Athi river.
Microlith tools, axe heads, polished stones, stone bowels, platters and grinding stones have
been discovered all over Kenya.
Iron was used as far back as 270AD. Evidence of iron use have been found at Urewe near
Ng‟iya in Siaya and in Kwale at the coast.
Animals such as cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in Kenya during the late stone
age.
Describe the lifestyle of early inhabitants of Kenya.
Their language resembled that of the Khoisan.
They originally were nomadic peoples.
They gathered fruits and dug up tubers and roots to supplement their diet.
They used stone tools, bows and arrows.
They fished in rivers and lakes, using harpoons.
They lived in rock shelters and caves.
They made and used pottery.
They buried or cremated their dead.
Because of their nomadic lifestyle, they lived in seasonal camps and had no permanent
homes.
Being hunter-gatherers, they were very few, with very few belongings i.e. a variety of stone
tools, bows and arrows.
By the 7th century BC, they had learnt and practised fishing. They started living in semi
permanent homes of rock shelters and caves.
After acquiring the skill of food production, they settled down in more permanent homes
and owned more materials such as grinding stones, pestles and stone bowels, pots and
calabashes.
They kept humpless long-horned cattle and grew food-crops like sorghum and millet.
They passed on many customs such as circumcision, age-set organization, the taboo against
eating fish, etc. There was a lot of cultural exchange between them and the new comers.
These early inhabitants of Kenya may have been subdued by other stronger peoples,
particularly the Bantu and the Nilotes through intermarriage, assimilation and war.
Identify the communities that descended from early inhabitants of Kenya and much of
east Africa.
The Irak and Burungi of Tanzania,
The Boni, Dahalo and Sanye of the River Tana basin.
The Nguye and Okuro in western Kenya.
Some remnants of these early inhabitants speak the languages of the groups near or with
whom they live. E.g. some speak Kikuyu while others speak Olmaa: the language of the
Maasai. A majority of them speak Kalenjin dialects. The Kalenjin refer to them as Okiek
while the Maasai call them Dorobo. In western Kenya, the Nguye and Okuro were totally
assimilated by the Luo and Bantu groups.
Identify the races of people that make up modern Kenya.
Africans.
Europeans.
Asians.
Arabs.
Identify three main linguistic groups into which African Kenyan communities are
divided.
The Bantu,
The Nilotes,
The Cushites.
Of these groups, Bantu speakers form the largest group, followed by the Nilotes. The Cushites
form the smallest.
THE CUSHITES
Describe two groups of the Kenyan Cushites.
The Southern Cushites, who moved southwards and settled in the highlands and plains of
Kenya and northern Tanzania. They were later assimilated by the groups that found them in
the region, such as the Irak, Boni, Burungi, Nilotes and Bantu. In Kenya, the only remaining
Southern Cushites are the Dahalo, who live in the lower course of River Tana.
The Eastern Cushites, who may have first settled in the Horn of Africa i.e. somewhere to
the north of Kenya: either in Ethiopia or Somalia after migrating from Arabia in 1000BC.
They then migrated into Somalia and reached northern Kenya in 1000AD.
Identify Kenyan communities that make up the Eastern Cushites.
The Borana,
The Somali,
The Oromo,
Gabra,
The Rendile,
The Burji.
The Eastern Cushites migrated into Kenya much later than the Southern Cushites.
Explain/trace the migration and settlement of the Oromo and Borana into Kenya.
THE OROMO
They arrived in Kenya in the 16th century and settled on the eastern shores of lake Turkana.
They tried to move eastwards but were stopped by the Somali. They therefore moved
south-eastwards and reached the coast in around 1600AD.
In the area around Shungwaya, they confronted and forced the Mijikenda and Pokomo to
leave. They occupied Malindi and Kilifi.
Even before their arrival in Kenya, the Oromo had conflicts with the Somali, which
continued up to early 20th century when both signed an agreement by which they settled in
their present homeland. Today, the Oromo are found on the southern part of the river Tana
and are neighbours to the Pokomo.
THE BORANA
The Borana, who are part of the Oromo-speaking people of southern Ethiopia, migrated into
Kenya in the last quarter of the 19th and the first quarter of the 20th century. They were
running away from the heavy taxation and rule of Menelik ii).
They spread into Kenya and settled in Wajir, Marsabit and Moyale.
About 1000AD, more Borana groups migrated into present-day Kenya from Somalia due to
war between Somali nationalists and British colonialists.
Explain the economic activities of the Borana during the pre-colonial period.
They were nomadic pastoralists. They kept cattle, sheep, camels and goats.
They traded with their neighbours and acquired grains in exchange for livestock. Their
neighbours included the Pokomo and the Mijikenda.
Those who settled along river Tana grew some food crops.
Discuss the socio-Political organization of the Borana in the pre-colonial period.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into clans.
Each clan was led by elders.
The residential section was the camp.
The senior married man was recognized as the head of the camp. He was referred to as
Abba Olla. His wife‟s hut was built on the extreme left of the camp.
The huts of others would be built from left to right, depending on their rank.
There was a Gada system, based on age-sets. Each Gada produced its own leader called
Abba Boku.
The Borana had two kinship groups: the Gona and the Sabbo.
The man called Abba Wara, headed the family while the wife (Hatimana) was the female
head of the household.
The Borana worshipped one God, who they called Wak.
The religious leader in the community was called Qaalu.
The Borana were patrilinial. The first male born would inherit all the property of the father.
Today, Borana territory extends up to the area north of the river Tana.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into two halves (Moieties).
The Moieties were subdivided into submoieties, which were then divided into clans. Each
clan comprised related families.
A hereditary leader (Kallu) headed each moiety.
The Kallu was a Judge and spiritual leader, who arbitrated in minor disputes.
There was an Age-set system, on which their military organization was based.
The Borana also had a Gada system, which comprised eleven grades. Each Gada class
lasted eight years and passed through eleven grades from birth to death.
Members of the Gada elected a Gada council, which made decisions.
Trace/discuss the migration and settlement of the Somali into Kenya.
The Somali were living in Mogadishu by the 10th century AD. Around that time, they began
to move southwards,, probably because the Oromo presented a threat, or because they were
looking for pasture, since they were nomadic pastoralists.
Between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries AD, many of the Somali converted to
Islam and established the Ajuran state near Mogadishu.
By the 17th century, the Somali pushed the Oromo out of their traditional homeland near
river Juba. The Oromo responded by migrating into Kenya.
Identify/explain the economic activities of the Somali in the pre-colonial period.
They were nomadic pastoralists. They kept donkeys, camels, goats and cattle.
Some of them, particularly those who lived in Oases regions and along river valleys,
practised subsistence agriculture. They grew grain crops, vegetables, dates and bananas.
They practised iron smelting and made iron tools like swords, knives, bangles and
arrowheads.
They hunted wild animals and gathered roots, vegetables and fruits.
They engaged in crafts such as leatherwork. They made handbags, belts and clothes.
Some of them who lived near rivers and along the Indian ocean practised fishing, using
fence traps, hooks, and lines.
They traded, mainly with their Bantu neighbours, particularly the Bantu, to who they sold
iron implements and leather products.
Discuss the socio-political organization of the Somali in the pre-colonial period.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
They were organized into clans.
The clans were headed by a council of elders, who settled disputes and maintained law and
order, among their other roles in the community.
Circumcision marked the transition from childhood to adulthood and was mandatory for
both boys and girls.
They believed in one God (wak).
Men took care of animals as women concentrated on domestic activities.
Being nomadic pastoralists, they moved from place to place in search of pasture.
They converted to Islam and adopted the Islamic way of life.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into clans.
The clans were headed by councils of elders, who maintained law and order.
After circumcision, young people formed age-sets.
With Islam, the political system changed to give way to the new leaders: the Sheikhs and
Islamic Law (Sharia)
Today, the Somali constitute the largest single group of Cushites in Kenya.
State the reasons for migration and settlement of the Cushites into Kenya in the pre -
colonial period.
Family feuds (internal rivalry) back in their original homeland.
Population increase or pressure in their area of origin.
Search for better pastures for their livestock.
Outbreak of diseases in their area of origin, which affected people and livestock.
Famine and drought in their original home-area.
Hostility and attacks by the neighbouring communities, such as the Somali.
The spirit of adventure, especially the Eastern Cushites.
Heavy taxation by the rulers of the areas they originally lived in, especially Menelik ii).
Explain the economic activities of the Cushites in the pre-colonial period.
Pastoralism, characterised by keeping of camels, cattle, sheep and goats, which provided
them with milk and meat and gave them prestige.
Trade, mainly with their Bantu neighbours such as the Mijikenda and Pokomo.
Fishing, particularly by Cushites living along the coast and near river Tana.
Agriculture, also practised by those living near river Tana. Grains, peas, beans, pepper and
other crops were cultivated.
Hunting. Wild animals were hunted for meat, ivory, hides and skins.
Discuss the social organization of the Cushites in the pre-colonial period.
They were organized into clans, each of which comprised related families with a common
ancestor.
They had the Age-set system.
They believed in one God.
By the end of the 16th century, most Cushites had been converted to Islam through
interaction with Muslim immigrants and therefore adopted Islamic culture.
Explain the principles under which the Age-Set system operated among the Cushites in
the pre-colonial period.
(Explain how the Age Set system functioned among the Cushites in the pre-colonial period).
Boys were grouped into age-sets after circumcision (between 10-15 years of age).
The Age-set system was based on about ten groups.
Once placed in a set, a boy remained in it all his life.
Age-sets provided the community with professional warriors.
Senior age-sets were retired from active public life and were settled in different territories.
A ceremony was performed at the end of every age-set cycle to keep the age-set system
strong.
Identify religious aspects/practices among the Cushites during the pre-colonial period.
(Explain the influence of religion among the Cushites in the pre-colonial period).
They believed in one God.
They referred to God by different names. For instance, the Oromo called him Wak.
They regarded God as all-powerful and controller of everybody‟s destiny.
They prayed to God for all their needs.
Discuss the political organization of the Cushites in the pre-colonial period.
Each clan existed and operated independently, except in times of difficulty, e.g. in case of
an invasion, when clans formed alliances to face the enemy.
Each clan was headed by a council of elders, who were major role players, particularly in
maintenance of law and order.
After circumcision, young people formed age-sets.
With Islam, the political system changed to give way to the new leaders: the Sheikhs and
Islamic Law (Sharia)
Explain the role/duties of the council of elders among the Cushites in the pre -colonial
period. (Explain the functions of the council of elders among the Cushites in the precolonial
period.)
They presided over assemblies.
They maintained law and order.
They served as ritual experts.
They settled land disputes.
They had the final say or were the final court of appeal in decision-making.
They had the final power and were the final authority, even among clans that had the Sultan,
such as the Somali.
What were the effects/results of migration and settlement of the Cushites into Kenya?
(Explain the consequences of the migration and settlement of the Cushites into Kenya).
High mortality rate due to fighting among various groups during migration. E.g. the Somali
and Oromo frequently engaged in warfare, in the process of which many people were killed.
Displacement. As new groups came into Kenya, they pushed out others. For example, in
their southward movement in the 16th century AD, the Oromo forced the Mijikenda and
Pokomo out of Shungwaya.
Exchange of cultural practices as some of the communities interacted and formed alliances.
E.g. the Samburu and the Rendile formed an alliance against the Turkana.
Increased population as various peoples migrated into Kenya.
introduction of new cultural practices in Kenya. For example, the taboo against fish
consumption among some Bantu speakers has been traced to the Cushites. Other new
cultural practices include circumcision and the age-set system.
Intermarriage,, e.g. between the Pokomo and the Borana.
Intensification of trading activities in Kenya. For instance, by the 19th century, they were
trading with the Samburu and Maasai.
Population redistribution in Kenya. For example, the Mijikenda were scattered at and from
Shungwaya and had to change their course of migration.
They adopted mixed farming methods, which they got from the Bantu.
They converted to Islam, which they spread among their neighbours.
BANTU SPEAKERS
ORIGIN
Who are Bantu-speakers?
(State the meaning of the term Bantu.)
The term Bantu refers to a group of people who speak related languages. They constitute the
largest language group in Africa and occupy two thirds of the sub-Saharan region.
Trace the origin of the Bantu.
The original homeland of the Bantu was between eastern Nigeria and the Cameroon
highlands.
They moved from Cameroon through the Congo forest into the lake region of east Africa,
Zambia and Shaba province of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
They then spread into east, central and southern Africa.
Due to their size and strength, they managed to conquer and now occupy two thirds of subSaharan
Africa.
They form the majority of Kenya‟s population.
2. (a) Describe Bantu migration.
Bantu migration was slow and gradual, involving small groups at a time.
Around 500BC, they were living in the Congo forest, which was a major dispersal point
from where they began to migrate.
Their movement was in four major waves, two of which led to their settlement in Kenya.
Describe four major waves of Bantu migration into east Africa.
(In what four waves were the Bantu divided as they migrated into east Africa?)
That which moved south-eastwards through the area west of lake Victoria, which became
the second dispersal point and from where some groups, especially the Western Bantu,
passed through present-day Uganda and eventually settled in Western Kenya from 1000AD
as others, such as the Banyoro and Baganda, settled in Uganda.
That which moved and entered east Africa at a point south of lake Victoria and proceeded
eastwards across northern Tanzania up to the area between Taita hills and mount
Kilimanjaro. At this point, some Bantu groups such as the Sukuma, Kuria, Nyamwezi and
Haya were left in Tanzania.
That which proceeded northwards from the area between Taita hills and mount Kilimanjaro
up to Shungwaya.
That which proceeded from Shungwaya up to the Kenyan coast. These became referred to
as the Eastern Bantu.
Identify the dispersal points through which the Bantu migrated from and settled in
various areas.
The Bantu migrated from and settled into various places through four major dispersal
points, namely:
The Congo forest
The area west of Lake Victoria,
The area between Taita hills and mount Kilimanjaro,
Shungwaya.
State the reasons for the migration and settlement of the Bantu into Kenya.
Population pressure due to food production, enabled by their knowledge in ironworking,
with which they made and used better farm implements.
Their might and strength due to better weapons and farm tools, which enabled them to
easily fight and defeat other people and to clear new lands for agriculture.
Internal pressure (family or clan rivalry).
Natural calamities such as famine, drought, etc.
Search for new farmland.
The spirit of adventure i.e. their desire to taste life in new lands.
invasions and frequent attacks by warring neighbours.
Diseases and epidemics, which affected both people and livestock.
Discuss Socio-political organization of the Kenya Bantu during the pre-colonial period.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
o They were divided into clans, with the clan as the basic unit in the community.
o They practised circumcision.
o They believed in the existence of a supernatural being: God.
o Diviners and medicine-people were highly valued. Some communities had seers.
o They had rituals that marked different stages of life, e.g. birth, naming, circumcision,
marriage and death.
o They had a regimental (Age-Set) system. circumcision formed the basis for an age-set and
age-grade system.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into clans, each with a clan head.
They had councils of elders, who settled disputes and presided over ceremonies.
Some like the Wanga were centralized under monarchs. The Wanga were led by a King
(Nabongo).
Some, like the Mijikenda, lived in fortified villages.
They were organized into Age-sets and age-grades.
They had warriors chosen from the Age-sets to defend the community or enrich it through
cattle raids on their neighbours.
Explain the economic activities of the Kenya Bantu in the pre-colonial period.
They participated in local, regional and international trade.
They practised farming.
They kept cattle, sheep, goats and other domestic animals.
Some were hunter-gatherers.
They practised crafts such as iron smelting, basketry and pottery.
Some communities such as the Mijikenda practised fishing.
MIGRATION & SETTLEMENT OF THE BANTU INTO KENYA
Describe two main groups in which the Bantu were divided as they migrated into Kenya.
The Western Bantu, who were part of the first wave of migrants that moved southeastwards
from the Congo forest through the area west of lake Victoria, passing through
present-day Uganda, where some of them settled as others proceeded to and settled in
Western Kenya from 1000AD.
The Eastern Bantu, i.e. Bantu-speaking groups that occupy the area between the rift valley
and coastal Kenya, who entered Kenya after migrating eastwards across northern Tanzania.
They had began to settle in Kenya by 1000AD and may have followed different directions
to get to their present homeland.
Identify the communities that belong to:
(a) The Western Bantu,
(b) The Eastern Bantu.
The Western Bantu include:
Abagusi,
Abaluhyia,
Abasuba,
Abakuria.
The Eastern Bantu include:
The Mijikenda,
The Pokomo,
The Taita,
Agikuyu,
Ameru,
Akamba,
Aembu.
THE WESTERN BANTU
Explain the migration and settlement of Abagusi, Abakuria and Abasuba into Kenya.
ABAGUSI
Abagusi may have originated from a place known to them as Misiri, under their ruler and
ancestor called Kwitu.
From Misiri, Abagusi and some Abaluhyia groups migrated to the Mount Elgon region
where they lived for several generations.
Around 1500AD, Abagusi, Abakuria and a section of Abalogoli migrated down Nzoyia
river valley and settled at Goye in Yimbo and near Ramogi hill and other areas on the
eastern shores of lake Victoria.
Due to arrival of Luo Ancestors In the lake region around 1550AD, Abagusi were pushed to
Alego, Kisumu, Sakwa and Asembo areas.
Shortly after 1600AD, drought forced Abagusi to migrate and settle in the Kano plains.
Their farther migration eastwards brought them into conflicts with the Kipsigis. Because of
this, they moved to the fertile Kisii highlands and other parts of their present homeland,
such as Kitutu, South Mugirango and others.
In spite of conflicts with the Luo, Maasai and Kipsigis, Abagusi exhibited and practised
good interaction, due to which they intermarried, traded and had other forms of exchange
with these communities.
ABAKURIA
Abakuria live in south Nyanza. Their traditions indicate that they are related to the
Abalogoli of Abaluhyia and Abagusi too.
They also trace their origin to the Mount Elgon region and maintain that they came from a
place called Misiri.
Abakuria may have migrated alongside Abagusi up to 1500AD when they took their
separate direction.
Abakuria settled briefly around the shores of Lake Victoria, where they interacted with the
Luo and the Southern Cushites. Abakuria may have picked up the practice of circumcision
and Age-set organization from the Southern Cushites.
Some of the Kuria clans may have come from northern Tanzania.
By 1800AD, Abakuria had all settled in south Nyanza, where they again met and continued
interacting with Abagusi. Indeed, some clans of Abagusi originally settled in Kuria territory
in the second half of the 18th century.
ABASUBA
Abasuba occupy Mfangano and Rusinga islands on lake Victoria, where they settled from
1750AD, after arriving as refugees fleeing from Buganda. Other Suba people were
displaced by the in coming Luo.
Suba migration was mainly triggered by fighting in Buganda and Busoga, following the
assassination of Kyabbagu by some of his children. Kyabbagu was King of Buganda. As a
result of the assassination, there was a struggle for succession to the throne, which made
some of the groups around Lake Victoria to flee.
In their migration from Busoga and Buganda, most of the Suba spoke either Luganda or
lusoga.
The Suba later interacted with the Luo as they entered Kenya, although they at first saw the
Luo as a threat to them. They traded and intermarried with the Luo among other practices.
Some Abasuba settled at Gwasi and Kaksingiri in later years. They adopted the social
customs of the Luo. Today, most Abasuba have adopted Luo culture.
Because of Luo influence, Abasuba have almost lost their original language and way of life.
Explain how Abaluhyia migrated and settled into Kenya.
(Analyse the migration and settlement of Abaluhyia into Kenya.)
Luhyia oral tradition traces their origin to an area called Misiri. Historical evidence shows
that Abaluhyia resulted from intermarriage between various ethnic groups in the course of
their migration into Kenya. Buluhyia is an area in which Nilotes, Bantu and some Cushites
interacted.
Luhyia migration and settlement into Kenya started around 300AD. Their most recent
ancestors spread from eastern Uganda from around 1300AD. Most of them may have
originated from the mount Elgon region and then settled in Bukhayo, Marama, Tiriki,
Bunyore, Wanga, Maragoli, Marachi, Kisa, Samia, Idakho, Isukha, Bungoma and other
Bukusu areas, Bunyala, Busonga, etc.
As they migrated, they assimilated other groups, such as the southern and eastern Cushites
as well as Southern Nilotes.
Between 1550-1750AD, Luhyia society began to take shape. By 1883, Abaluhyia had fully
emerged as a community.
Abaluhyia interacted with Nilotic speakers such as the Maasai, Kalenjin and Luo, which led
to a lot of cultural exchange.
The interaction of Abaluhyia with several other communities perhaps explains why there
exists so many clans and dialects among Abaluhyia. In fact, the term Luhyia means Family.
Abaluhyia means People Of the Family or Family-people.
Explain how Luhyia interaction with Nilotic speakers facilitated cultural exchange.
(In what ways did Luhyia interaction with Nilotic speakers lead to cultural exchange?)
Some Luhyia clans such as Abashimuli of the Idakho were formed.
Some Abaluhyia picked up and started speaking the languages of the people they interacted
with. This is more so with the Marachi, Kisa and Samia, who started speaking the Luo
language. On the other hand, the people with whom Abaluhyia interacted adopted Luhyia
dialects.
From the Kalenjin, the Luhyia learnt cattle keeping and age-set organization.
Some such as the Wanga bought or borrowed military services from the Maasai, who also
had entered Luhyia territory.
Sharing of practices, particularly in the border region resulted. E.g. Southern Luhyialand,
especially Bunyala, Samia and Busonga (Usonga) have been heavily influenced by the Luo
due to sharing of language and rituals, such as removal of teeth.
Identify the dialects that constitute Luhyia community.
(What dialects is the Luhyia community made of?)
Eighteen major dialects constitute Abaluhyia. These are:
Tiriki,
Maragoli,
Isukha,
Idaho,
Banyore,
Kisa,
Batsotso,
Marama,
Wanga,
Banyala,
Batura,
Kabarasi,
Bukusu,
Tachoni,
Khayo,
Marachi,
Basonga,
Samia.
Each of these dialects consists of several clans and tended to exist independently, through
remotely connected ties to the rest of Abaluhyia. In fact, Abaluhyia were constituted as a
community in 1947, when the British colonial government administered all these Luhyia
dialects as a single entity.
Trace the migration and settlement of the Wanga into Kenya.
(Analyse/explain Wanga migration and settlement into Kenya.)
The Wanga Kingdom was founded by the Bahima, who had migrated from western Uganda
and who settled at Imanga hills under their King: Muhima, who was referred to by the title
Nabongo. Between 1544-1652, Nabongo Muhima founded the Hima dynasty by uniting the
different clans that had settled at Imanga.
Shortly after 1652, the Hima dynasty was replaced by the Bashitsetse dynasty under their
ruler called Wanga. It was after this ruler (Wanga) that the Kingdom was later named, to
become Abawanga or Bawanga (people of Wanga). In most cases, the community is
referred to just by the name Wanga.
The Bashitsetse established a more centralized system of government.
During the reign of Nabongo Wamukoya, a group rebelled and formed a parallel kingdom
known as Wanga Mukulu of Kweyu. During Nabongo Mumia‟s time, Wanga Mukulu was
ruled by Nabongo Sakwa.
The Abawanga suffered attacks from their neighbours. To resist these attacks, Nabongo had
to seek assistance from the Europeans. They got assistance from General Hobley.
The British expanded the Wanga traditional rule and made Nabongo a Paramount Chief. As
a Paramount Chief, Nabongo Mumia ruled what was known as Eastern Uganda, which
include the present Nyanza and Western provinces and parts of Rift Valley (Turkana, Uasin
Ngishu, Trans Nzoia, Nandi, Bomet, Kericho, Buret, Baringo, West Pokot, Keiyo,
Marakwet and Nakuru) up to Mai Mahiu.
Through Mumia, the British assisted the Abawanga to fight their enemies e.g. the
Ababukusu, Luo, and Iteso. Mumia died in 1949.
Identify the Kings (Nabongos) that reigned over Wanga.
Apart from Muhima and Wanga, Other kings (Nabongos) that reigned over Wanga were:
Nabongo Wamukoya Netia (1760-1787),
Nabongo Osundwa (1787-1814),
Nabongo Wamukoya (1814-1841),
Nabongo Shiundu –(1841-1882),
Nabongo Mumia (1882-1949).
Describe the political organization of the Wanga in the pre-colonial period.
The Wanga are of special interest because of their centralized system of government, which
no other Luhyia or Bantu group in Kenya had.
They were headed by a king (Nabongo).
The office of Nabongo was hereditary.
Nabongo was assisted by a chief minister and an army commander.
Nabongo levied taxes on the conquered communities and controlled trade in his kingdom.
Nabongo mainly appointed members of the royal family as officials to administer the
provinces.
Apart from the Wanga, all other Kenya Bantu had no centralized authority. Some Western
Bantu communities such as the Luhyia were affected by the spread of warfare in the
Western Kenya region, so the political set-up among some communities had to be
reorganized. The centralized system of government such as that of the Wanga was most
reliable.
Discuss the socio political organization of the Western Bantu during the pre -colonial
period.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
They were organized in clans. The clan was the basic unit of their political and social
organization.
Circumcision of boys was a very important practice, especially among Abaluhyia and
Abagusi. It was at circumcision that the boys were taught the values and customs of their
homeland. While Abagusi and Abakuria circumcised their females, the rest of the western
Bantu did not. Some Western Bantu communities like the Khayo, Samia, Marachi and
Abasuba do not have the practice of circumcision.
After initiation, the boys joined age-sets. Various age-sets had various duties, e.g. provision
of warriors to defend the community, raid for animals,, help one another in tasks such as
hunting, building huts, harvesting, etc. Senior age-sets advised the junior ones, settled
disputes, distributed war booty, etc.
They believed in one God. They regarded God as controller of everything, who continues to
influence man‟s life, even after man‟s death. They called God by different names. They
also believed in ancestral spirits, to whom they poured libations and offered sacrifices.
Medicine men and diviners were highly valued in the society. Sorcerers and witch doctors
were hated, because they were believed to use charms and medicine to harm others.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
Apart from the Wanga, the Western Bantu were politically organized as follows in the precolonial
period:
They were under village councils run by elders.
They were categorized into age-set systems, which provided the community with defence
and security.
Positions of leadership were hereditary.
Explain the functions/role of the council of elders among the Western Bantu during the
pre-colonial period.
They maintained and ensured law and order in the community.
They served as the final court of appeal in all matters.
They had power to declare, stop or call off war.
They presided over religious and other communal functions.
They served as ritual experts.
They settled land disputes.
Explain the economic activities of the Western Bantu during the pre-colonial period.
Keeping livestock. They kept cattle, sheep and goats, which provided them with milk, meat,
hides and skins.
Agriculture. They grew grains, pulses and root crops such as cassava, arrow roots, potatoes
and yams as well as legumes like beans and peas.
Trade. Abagusi gave their Luo neighbours grains, iron implements and soap-stones in
exchange for livestock, salt, hides, milk, pots, baskets, etc. The case was similar between
the Luhyia and their Nandi and Luo neighbours.
Fishing. They used hooks and lines, basket nets and fence traps to catch fish. They sold
some of the fish they caught to neighbouring communities.
Ironworking. This enabled them to have better weapons and farm implements, which aided
their migration and settlement in various places before they finally settled in their present
homeland.
Crafts. They were good in pottery and basketry, which boosted their trade and other
economic activities.
THE EASTERN BANTU
Who are the Eastern Bantu?
The Eastern Bantu are Bantu-speaking groups that occupy the area between the rift valley
and coastal Kenya.
Identify the communities that belong to the Eastern Bantu.
The Mijikenda,
The Pokomo,
The Taita,
The Agikuyu,
The Ameru,
The Akamba
The Aembu.
Identify two main classifications of the Eastern Bantu.
(Into what two main groups are the Eastern Bantu divided?)
The Coastal Bantu.
The Highland Bantu.
Name the communities that belong to:
(a) The Coastal Bantu,
(b) The Highland Bantu.
The Coastal Bantu include:
The Mijikenda,
The Pokomo,
The Taita.
The Highland Bantu include:
The Akamba,
Agikuyu,
Ameru,
Aembu and Mbeere.
THE COASTAL BANTU
Trace/explain the origin of the Coastal Bantu.
They probably were the first Bantu people to settle in Kenya.
Their ancestors may have moved from a dispersal point west of Lake Victoria through
northern Tanzania to the area between Taita hills and Mount Kilimanjaro.
Others such as the Mijikenda moved towards the coast, while the Chagga of Tanzania
settled to the south. The Taita remained on the hills as the Mijikenda and other groups
moved along the coast up to Shungwaya, which may have been somewhere between rivers
Juba and Tana. The present highland Bantu moved westwards and eventually occupied their
present home areas.
The Shungwaya dispersal mainly resulted from the southward expansion of the Oromo by
1600AD. The Mijikenda groups started settling in their present home areas in the course of
1700AD. By the beginning of the 19th century, they had settled in their present homeland.
The Pokomo on the other hand moved from Shungwaya, following the river Tana. Here,
they interacted with Cushites such as the Oromo and the Somali.
Who are the Mijikenda?
Mijikenda is a Kiswahili word that means nine clans. The Mijikenda comprise the nine
communities that originally inhabited the nine settlements called Kaya in the immediate
coastal hinterland.
Name the nine communities the constitute (make up) the Mijikenda.
The Giriama,
Kauma,
Chonyi,
Kambe,
Ribe,
Jibana,
Rabai,
Duruma,
Digo.
Analyse/trace the migration and settlement of the Mijikenda and Pokomo into Kenya.
THE MIJIKENDA
The Mijikenda trace their point of origin to Shungwaya, which in Bantu means “To be
driven away”.
From Shungwaya, the Bantu were forced to move southwards by the Oromo, who also
stopped their northward migration around the 16th century AD. The Somali also joined the
Oromo in forcing the Mijikenda out of Shungwaya, from where the Mijikenda moved in
small groups, which explains why they settled in different places and why today the
Mijikenda exist and are identified by their small groups or clans.
The Mijikenda settled in fortified villages, just inland from the coast. Each of the nine
groups settled in their own separate ridges, which are commonly referred to as Kaya, a word
that means „towns‟. The term Mijikenda itself expresses that the community consists of
nine related groups.
Each Kaya was fortified with tree trunks. Even after settling in their present homeland, their
main enemies were the Oromo and the Somali.
By the 19th century, the Mijikenda had interacted and established themselves as middlemen
in the Long Distance trade between the Akamba and the Waswahili at the coast.
THE POKOMO
Ancestors of the Pokomo lived with those of the Mijikenda at Shungwaya, but the Pokomo
moved southwards and settled along river Tana, where they interacted with Cushitic
communities. Population pressure and Oromo attacks were the main reasons for Pokomo
movement from Shungwaya.
THE TAITA
Name the three hills inhabited by the Taita.
Mangea hill, where they first settled.
Davida,
Sagalla,
Kisigan.
Trace/analyse migration and settlement of the Taita into Kenya.
The Taita are a people of mixed origin, though most of them trace their origin to
Shungwaya.
They first settled on Mangea hill in the 16th century, from where they migrated to their
present home areas.
They live on three hills i.e. Davida, Sagalla and Kisigan.
Identify Taita clans and their origins.
According to their oral tradition, Taita clans are of the following origins:
The Wasadu, who originated from the Oromo.
The Wanyanya, who originated from the Maasai, Oromo and Akamba.
The Wanya, who originated from the Mijikenda, Agikuyu and Shambala.
The Shambala, who originated from Tanzania.
The Wasann, who originated from the Pokomo, Akamba and Shambala.
The Wasasadu, who originated from the pare in Tanzania.
The Waikumi, who originated from the Maasai and Akamba.
These clans emerged as a people after many years of interaction.
ORGANIZATION OF THE COASTAL BANTU
Describe the socio-political systems among the coastal Bantu during the pre-colonial
period.
They were divided into clans, each with its council of elders (Kambi), which served as the
final court of appeal in all matters as the highest ruling council.
The council of elders comprised the highest level of Age-set systems as part of the
organization of the society.
Under the elders were prophetesses and prophets (Wafisi), who had authority over all
religious and ritual matters by administering oath and conducting all traditional ceremonies
at every level e.g. circumcision, harvesting, planting, cleansing, reconciliation, etc.
In short, the social and political institutions among the coastal Bantu were closely
interwoven.
Describe the economic activities of the Coastal Bantu during the pre-colonial period.
Agriculture. They mainly cultivated grains, with which they traded.
Keeping livestock. They kept cattle, sheep and goats, which provided them with milk,
meat, hides and skins.
Fishing. Most of the coastal Bantu who lived on the sea-shore and along river-banks caught
fish to supplement their diet and to boost their trade.
Hunting. This was more so with the Taita and Mijikenda, who hunted elephants and
rhinoceros for ivory, horns, etc.
Trade. The Mijikenda traded with the Akamba, Chagga and Taita as far back as the 18th
century AD. They traded in grains, goats, sheep, cattle, iron tools, beads, clothes, ivory,
skins, rhino horns, etc.
THE HIGHLAND BANTU
from the dispersal at Shungwaya, the Highland (mount Kenya) Bantu moved westwards
and occupied the areas that eventually became their present homeland.
THE AKAMBA
Analyse/discuss migration and settlement of the Akamba into Kenya.
(Trace the origin of the Akamba.)
The Akamba trace their origin to the area around Mount Kilimanjaro, from where their
ancestors migrated to the great bend of the river Tana. They then moved to Taita hills and
finally reached Tsavo west. Around mid 15th century AD, the Akamba followed the eastern
banks of river Athi, from where one group moved across the Athi to Ulu. Due to Oromo
attacks, another group of the Akamba moved south to the Galana river and settled in the
region around Chyulu hills north of Mount Kilimanjaro. Due to drought in the Chyulu area,
some Akamba migrated and settled in the Mbooni hills near Machakos around mid 16th
century.
Soon, due to population increase, some Akamba migrated farther to Iveti, Kilungu, Masaku
and Makueni.
In the course of their migration and settlement, the Akamba met and interacted with the
Agikuyu.
In what ways was Akamba migration and settlement influenced by the environment?
(Explain how and what environmental factors influenced Akamba migration and settlement
into Kenya).
Those in Mbooni region took up agriculture due to soil fertility and ample rainfall in the
area.
The Akamba who moved to drier areas like Chyulu hills became hunters.
Others moved to Kitui and adopted pastoralism and hunting. It is this group that later
participated in the Long Distance trade by providing ivory and slaves to the coastal traders
in thee 19th century.
In what ways did the Akamba interact with the Agikuyu in the course of Akamba
migration and settlement into Kenya?
(Explain interaction between the Akamba and Agikuyu in the course of Akamba migration
and settlement into Kenya.)
They exchanged trade items.
They intermarried.
They adopted cultural aspects like language and dressing.
They raided and fought each other.
They began sporting activities such as wrestling and archery.
THE AMERU
Name the dialects that constitute/make up the Ameru.
The Tigania,
Igembe,
Imenti,
Igoji,
Chuka,
Tharaka,
Muthambi,
Muimbi.
Discuss/analyse migration and settlement of the Ameru into Kenya.
The Ameru claim a place called Mbwa, which is somewhere at the coast (probably Manda
island) as their area of origin. However, historians believe that this tradition of Mbwa fits
very well with Bantu dispersal from Shungwaya.
By late 15th century, ancestors of the Ameru had begun arriving in Meru. Ameru migration
from the coast was mainly due to Oromo pressure.
From Shungwaya, the Ameru moved westwards along the river Tana and pushed into
Igembe and Tigania regions. Around 1400AD, the Ameru and other Mount Kenya groups
were living as hunters and pastoralists.
They moved farther into the interior, crossing river Tana. Some, especially the Tharaka,
finally settled to the east of River Tana as others such as the Chuka, Muimbi, Imenti,
Tigania and Igembe settled in the area west of the River Tana.
The Ameru and Agikuyu are believed to have initially migrated as one group until the 15th
and 16th centuries, when the Agikuyu took their separate direction. The traditions of the
two groups and those of the Aembu and Mbeere seem to confirm this view.
Aembu and mbeere ancestors are believed to have initially migrated with those of the
Ameru and Agikuyu from the Kilimanjaro area before going their separate way.
By 1500, the Mbeere had settled in their present homeland. However, the Aembu crossed
River Thuci and moved north-westwards to the area east of mount Kenya, where they
settled and interacted with the Athi and Gumba, who they later assimilated and from who
they learnt the art of bee keeping, ironworking and circumcision.
THE AGIKUYU
The Agikuyu are the largest population of all the Eastern Bantu. They inhabit the Central
province of Kenya.
Describe two legends or myths that refer to Gikuyu origin.
That which presents the Agikuyu as having originated from Mukurwe Wa Gathanga, where
their ancestors (Gikuyu and his wife mumbi) were settled after God created them.
According to this legend, Gikuyu and mumbi begat nine daughters, who married and
mothered the nine clans of the present Agikuyu.
That which states that the Agikuyu may have descended from one of the four sons of a
Mbeere man, the other three of which may have mothered the Akamba, Athi and Maasai.
Discuss/analyse migration and settlement of the Agikuyu into Kenya.
By 1200AD, The Bantu had already settled in the Central province of Kenya. However, the
original inhabitants of the area were hunter-gatherers, such as the Athi (Dorobo) and the
Gumba. These may have been the remnants of the original inhabitants. The Athi and the
Gumba interacted with the Agikuyu, who later assimilated them.
The Agikuyu may have moved south-west from the coast around 1400AD, probably to
avoid hostile neighbours, such as the Oromo. They also may have moved in search for
cultivable land. They followed the Tana River.
As they moved, some groups broke off and settled in different places. Those who settled in
the east became the Tharaka while those who settled in the south-west became the mbeere.
They had arrived and settled in Mbeere and Chuka from a northern direction by the 16th
century AD. One group proceeded to the confluence of the Tana and Thika rivers by the
beginning of the 18th century. This was the group of Gikuyu ancestors that is associated
with the Mukurwe Wa Gathanga tradition in Murang‟a.
The Agikuyu later moved to the Mweya plains, where they were joined by the Akamba and
the Thagicu. Farther expansion of the Agikuyu led to the displacement of the Athi and
Gumba, some of who were assimilated while others ran into the Nyandarua and Mount
Kenya forests.
In the first half of the 19th century, the Agikuyu once more migrated to Othaya and Aguthi.
They also moved north-eastwards to Mathira and Tetu in Nyeri. They spread and settled in
different parts of Central province and reached as far as Kiambu and Nyandarua. Their
settlement in Kiambu and Nyandarua was interrupted by the coming of the Europeans in the
19th century. However, they were still migrating by early 20th century.
As they migrated, the Agikuyu borrowed ideas from the Cushites, the Maasai, the Gumba
and Athi. The Gumba and Athi were later together known as the Okiek.
The Maasai seriously opposed or resisted Agikuyu invasion. However, the Athi welcomed
and were on good terms with the Agikuyu. The Agikuyu borrowed many economic and
social aspects from the Athi, e.g. ironworking, circumcision, clitoridectomy (female
circumcision) and some age-set features.
Describe the socio-political systems among the Agikuyu during the pre-colonial period.
The Agikuyu at touched a lot of political and social importance to the family and age-set.
Being the smallest social and political unit, every family had its own head. Several families
formed a clan.
Gikuyu country was divided into clans or territorial units, each of which was made up of
several sub-clans (Mbari) with common descent, usually living on the same ridge.
each territorial unit was headed by a council of elders: the “Kiama”, under a senior elder
known as “Muramati” or “Muthamaki” (spokesman). Muramati was highly respected by the
community because of his wisdom and leadership qualities. However, he was not a chief.
Each sub-clan was ruled by a council of elders subordinate to the “Kiama”. This performed
religious, administrative and judicial roles within the sub clan, leaving the “Kiama” to deal
with matters beyond its ability or communal mandate.
At puberty, young boys were initiated through elaborate rites, crowned with circumcision,
during which they were taught the social values, customs and their duties to the community
as warriors.
Boys circumcised at the same time formed an Age-set (Rika). Age-sets formed the military
base for the Gikuyu community, since members of the same age-set considered one another
as brothers, which created a strong political and social bond. Circumcision of girls was also
done every year.
They believed in one God (Ngai), who was all-powerful and in complete control of all life
and who has a definite dwelling place: Mount Kirinyaga (Mount Kenya). Since God was
all-powerful, people prayed to him through priests. priests offered the community‟s prayers
to God through ancestral spirits. Diviners interpreted God‟s messages to the people.
Sacrifices were offered to God in thanksgiving or to ask for his blessings.
The Agikuyu strongly believed in ancestral spirits, who continued to live for many
generations, even after physical death and who were all-powerful as intermediaries between
God and the living.
Medicinemen and diviners were very important in the community. The Medicine man
(“Mundu Mugo”) could cure certain diseases and expel evil spirits. Medical skills were
inherited from close relatives. The Diviner (“Murathi”) could foretell the future.
From the main council of elders, a council of senior elders was formed.
Explain the role/duties of the council of elders among the Agikuyu in the pre-colonial
period.
(What were the functions of the council of elders among the Agikuyu during the pre-colonial
period?)
They were the highest court of appeal.
They solved land and inheritance disputes.
They settled civil and criminal cases.
They presided over religious and other functions.
Identify the economic activities of the Agikuyu during the pre-colonial period.
Agriculture. They grew sorghum, eleusine, millet, root crops and many others for
subsistence.
Animal husbandry. They kept cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, etc.
Trade. They exchanged various trade items with their Maasai, Akamba, Okiek and other
neighbours. Such items included grains and livestock.
Ironworking. From iron smelting, they obtained weapons and farm implements, with which
they were able to settle and farm in their present homeland.
Crafts. They made pots, baskets and other items, which boosted their skills in trade and
other economic activities.
Discuss the effects of Bantu migration and settlement into Kenya.
Increased population in the regions where they settled.
spread of ironworking to other parts of Kenya. The skill reached other communities, such as
the Luo.
Increased intercommunal conflicts. For instance, they fought with the Oromo at the coast,
the Maasai in the Rift Valley and the Luo near Lake Victoria.
More trading activities as the Bantu exchanged iron products with other communities. For
example, Abagusi gave iron products to the Luo in return for baskets.
Increased cultural interaction and exchange. For instance, many Bantu groups assimilated
the Southern Cushites as some Bantu were assimilated by Nilotes.
spread of agricultural practices in Kenya. For example, the Kwavi Maasai of Kenya adopted
cultivation.
Population redistribution. E.g. the Dorobo moved to forested areas.
Displacement of some communities. For instance, Abagusi were displaced by the Luo in the
Kano plains. Some Eastern Cushites were displaced by the Agikuyu from parts of central
Kenya.
Intermarriage. E.g. Abaluhyia intermarried with the Maasai, Kalenjin and Luo.
Exchange of knowledge and skills. Many Bantu adopted the Age-set system and the
practice of circumcision from the southern Cushites.
THE NILOTES
Who are the Nilotes?
The Nilotes are groups of people whose origin is associated with river Nile and who have
similarities in the languages they speak. This is why they are referred to as Nilotic speakers.
They originated from the South-western fringe of the Ethiopian highlands. In Kenya, they
are the second largest language group.
List the classifications of the Nilotic speakers.
(Identify the groups into which the Nilotic speakers are divided.)
The River-lake Nilotes,
The plain Nilotes
The Highland Nilotes.
Name the communities that belong to the River-Lake Nilotes group.
The Kenya Luo, who mainly occupy Luo Nyanza and parts of Western province. They are
sometimes called Southern Luo in order to distinguish them from other River-lake Nilotes
in Uganda and southern Sudan.
The Dinka,
Shiluk,
Bor,
Anwak,
Alur,
Acholi,
Jopaluo,
Padhola,
Nuer,
The Luo of Uganda.
THE KENYA LUO
Analyse/discuss migration and settlement of the Luo into Kenya.
The Luo originated from Bahr-El-Ghazal, area in Southern Sudan, from where they moved
and settled at Pu Bungu in northern Uganda.
They then moved to Pakwach, where they had settled by 1450AD. It was from Pakwach
that they later migrated into Kenya.
By the 15th century, the Luo had begun to move to present-day Kenya.
Though they all claim common ancestry in Ramogi, They migrated and settled in Kenya in
four main groups. These were:
a. Joka Owiny,
b. Joka Jok,
c. Joka Omolo,
d. Abasuba.
Analyse/discuss migration and settlement of the four Luo groups into Kenya.
JOKA JOK
The term “Joka” means “People of”. “Joka Jok” means “people of Jok”.
Jok and his people were the first to move eastwards out of Uganda. They were the first Luo
group to arrive in Kenya.
By the 15th century, they had settled at Ramogi hills of Kadimo in Yimbo in present-day
Siaya district.
Later, two of Jok‟s sons fled to south Nyanza across the Winam gulf to form the
Karachwonyo and Wanjare clans.
From Ramogi hills, Joka Jok also spread to Sakwa, Alego, Asembo and other parts of
Nyanza province. Joka Jok migrated as a result of internal conflicts among other factors.
JOKA OWINY
Owiny and his group may have moved from Uganda in late 16th century AD. They passed
through Mbale, Toro and the Mount Elgon region and eventually settled in Samia.
By early 17th century, they had arrived at Sigoma in Alego, from where they spread to
Uyoma, Kisumu, Nyakach and south Nyanza.
Because Owiny was a great fighter and leader, his people became popularly known as Joka
Ruoth. His name was merged with that of Sigoma (the place where Owiny and his people
first settled in Alego) to form Owiny-Sigoma.
JOKA OMOLO
Joka Omolo came from the northern Bunyoro region in present-day Uganda. They settled
temporarily in Ibanda and Bukoli before moving on to Samia, Ugenya and Gem.
By 1600, they had reached Yimbo, from where they spread to Alego and other areas.
As they migrated, they encountered Abagusi and Abalogoli, whom they pushed out of
Yimbo.
By early 18th century, some Joka family groups had moved across Winam gulf into south
Nyanza.
ABASUBA
Though associated with the Luo, Abasuba were originally Bantu. Most of them migrated
from Buganda in late 18th century.
They intermarried with the Luo and settled in the Gwasi area and on the Lake Victoria
islands of Mfangano and Rusinga. Most of them adopted Luo culture.
Give reasons for the migration of the Luo from Bahr-El-Ghazal in Sudan to Kenya by
1800AD.
Search for fresh grazing land and water for their large herd,, probably due to overstocking
in 2. ii) Natural calamities such as drought, famine, pests, etc.
Family feuds (internal conflicts/rivalry).
Population pressure in their cradle land.
Hostilities and threats as well as attacks from neighbouring communities.
Outbreak of diseases and epidemics, which afflicted both people and livestock.
The spirit of adventure.
Search for better fishing areas.
Explain social organization among the Kenya Luo during the pre-colonial period.
The family was the basic social unit.
Several families formed one clan.
They practised polygamy (marriage of more than one wife).
They were exogamous i.e. they did not allow marriage within the clan.
They were deeply religious and believed in a creator: God, whom they called Nyasaye.
They had sacred shrines and trees where they offered sacrifices to the ancestral spirits.
They had religious leaders, including priests, rain makers and medicine people.
The youth underwent initiation (Ng‟angrwok) at puberty, which involved extraction of six
of their lower front teeth.
They had several ritual ceremonies at birth, naming, marriage and death.
Marriage was celebrated and tokens like cows were exchanged to seal the relationship.
Burial was celebrated through dancing and feasting, in view of the fact that the departed had
joined a new and better world: that of the living dead.
Explain the economic activities of the Kenya Luo during the pre-colonial period.
Keeping livestock. They kept Cattle, sheep, goats, etc. Dogs were kept and used in hunting
while cats were kept as pets. They also kept chicken, ducks and gees.
Fishing. Luo men and women fished in lake Victoria as well as local rivers and streams.
Trade. The Luo traded with Abaluhyia, Abagusi, the Kipsigis, Nandi, Abakuria and other
neighbours. They sold surplus food and animal products as well as earthenware in exchange
for spears, farm implements and soapstone among others.
Hunting. They hunted animals to supplement their diet.
Crafts. They were good in basketry, canoe building, weaving and cloth making.
Ironworking. They practised iron smelting, which they learnt from neighbouring
communities such as the Luhyia and Nandi.
Agriculture. They grew sorghum, beans, sweet potatoes, peas, finger millet, pumpkins,
cassava, a variety of vegetables and a variety of grains.
Discuss Political organization among the Kenya Luo during the pre-colonial period.
They were a decentralized community. They were led by councils of elders.
The lowest level of political structure was the family head, referred to as Jadwong‟.
several families who traced their descent to a common ancestor formed one clan.
Within the clan was a council of elders (Doho), who settled disputes.
Under the Doho were lineage councils (Buch Dho‟OT).
Clans were grouped to form larger territorial units called Gweng‟ (in singular) or Gwenge
(in plural).
Each Gweng‟ was self governing, with its authority in the hands of a council of elders that
comprised all clan heads and outstanding elders from foreign lineages.
When grouped together, Gwenge formed Oganda, which was a kind of sub tribe governed
by Buch Piny, which was a council that comprised the Heads of the different Gwenge,
outstanding diviners, medicine men, healers, rainmakers and warriors. Buch Piny was
chaired by the Chief (Ruoth). It dealt with issues such as boundary disputes, external
invasions and interclan conflicts.
Within the Buch Piny was a war leader called Osumba Mrwayi, who led a group of
warriors known as Thuondi (bulls), who defended the community and conducted raids.
Luo expansion continued up to the colonial period, when they were stopped by European
colonialists in the 19th century.
Explain the role/functions of the council of elders among the Kenya Luo during the pre -
colonial period.
(What were the duties of the council of elders among the Kenya Luo during the pre-colonial
period?)
Administration of justice.
Serving as the final court of appeal in Gweng‟ matters.
presiding over religious ceremonies.
Declaration of war or negotiation of peace.
Admission or expulsion of strangers.
Explain the consequences/impact/results of the migration and settlement of the Luo in
Kenya by 1750AD.
Increased population in the region.
Increased civil and intercommunal warfare.
displacement of the Western Bantu e.g. Abaluhyia and Abakuria as well as other
communities such as the Maasai.
Assimilation of some Luhyia and other groups in the region.
Increased trading activities. The Luo exchanged livestock for the items they did not have.
Intermarriage due to interaction between the Luo and other groups.
Luo adoption of agriculture alongside pastoralism as a result of their contacts with the
Bantu farming communities.
redistribution of populations as some communities left while others came into the region.
THE HIGHLAND NILOTES
Identify two main classifications of the Highland Nilotes.
(Into what two main groups are the Highland Nilotes divided?)
. The Kalenjin.
i. The Jie.
Name the communities that belong to each of the two main Highland Nilotic groups.
The Kalenjin consist of:
Tugen,
Keio,
Marakwet,
Nandi,
Kipsigis,
Sabaot,
Pokot,
Elgon.
The Jie comprise:
The Karamojong,
Kumam,
Iteso,
Turkana,
The Jie themselves.
Analyse/discuss migration and settlement of the Highland Nilotes into Kenya. (Explain
the origin of the Highland Nilotes and how they migrated and settled into Kenya.)
Highland Nilotes were pastoralists. Their ancestors may first have lived in Karamoja before
they split into various groups.
The Highland Nilotes may have been the earliest Nilotic speakers in Kenya. They must
have occupied most of western Kenya, because their neighbours speak a lot about them.
They are mentioned in tales told of their warlike nature, e.g. the Luo story of Lwanda
Magere (a strong Luo warrior) who was eventually betrayed by a Nandi lady in order for
the Nandi to gain victory over the Luo.
Kalenjin traditions indicate that their original homeland lay at a place to the north-western
part of Kenya, between Sudan and Ethiopia, from where the highland Nilotes may have
began migrating during the last millennium. The Dadog of Tanzania and the pioneer
Kalenjin emigrants in Kenya such as the Sirikwa may have occupied the Rift Valley by
700AD.
Highland Nilotic remnants therefore spread towards the western mount Elgon highlands,
next to the Kenya-Uganda border. These became the ancestors of the Kalenjin speakers we
have today.
The Kalenjin first lived as a single community on mount Kamalinga to the north-west of the
lake Turkana region. In the 17th century, they began expanding southwards to the slopes of
Mount Elgon, where some of them remained as others moved on. The Bok, Bongomek and
Kony are among those that remained. Indeed, it was from the Kalenjin that the Bantu got
some cultural practices, such as circumcision.
By early 17th century, the Kalenjin had inhabited Nandi, Aldai, Kamasiya, Elgon, etc. As
pastoralists, they roamed and grazed in their new homeland, which led to intermarriage
between them and the Uasingishu, the Maasai, the Sirikwa, etc.
Analyse/discuss migration and settlement of the Iteso, Karamojong, Turkana, Nandi and
Kipsigis into Kenya.
THE ITESO
The Iteso began migrating from Karamoja, in late 17th century and early 18th century.
Between 1652-1731, they arrived at Kumi and Soroti, from where they spread towards
mount Elgon.
By the 19th century, the Iteso had settled In Western Kenya, where they interacted with the
Babukusu and Bagisu through intermarriage, trade, agriculture, keeping livestock,
intertribal wars, etc.
It was as a result of such interaction that the Iteso adopted agriculture in addition to
pastoralism. They grew crops such as sweet potatoes, groundnuts, cassava and varieties of
vegetables. This enabled the Iteso to be more settled.
THE KARAMOJONG AND TURKANA
These migrated southwards while the Jie took a northward direction. The Karamojong
assimilated some Iteso. The Turkana on the other hand inhabited the lake Turkana area.
THE NANDI
The Nandi may have moved from the mount Elgon region between 1700-1800AD.
In the last half of the 19th century, they emerged as one of the strongest groups in Western
Kenya. For instance, apart from other warfare, they conducted raids for livestock against
Abaluhyia, the Luo and even the Uasingishu Maasai.
The rise of the Nandi to power was facilitated by the decline of the Maasai, who were
weakened by civil wars among other calamities.
By the end of the 19th century, the Nandi had dominated almost all the communities in the
rift valley apart from the Kipsigis, who served as their allies. Nandi power only declined
when colonial rule was imposed on Kenya. But even then, the Nandi resisted colonial
intrusion for six years.
THE KIPSIGIS
The Nandi and the Kipsigis may have separated from other Kalenjin groups such as the
Bok, Bongomek and the Tugen in the mount Elgon area around 1600AD. They moved
south-east to Teo near lake Baringo.
Due to Maasai hostility, they moved westwards to Tambach, where they stayed for a long
period.
From Tambach, they went farther south to Rongai near Nakuru.
Drought and Maasai raids are among the factors that caused Nandi separation from the
Kipsigis.
From Rongai, the Kipsigis moved south to Kericho while the Nandi moved westwards to
Aldai. This was probably during the second half of the 18th century.
Settlement of the Kipsigis at Kipsigis Hill marked the establishment of a strong community.
They assimilated the groups that they found at Kipsigis hill, such as the Sirikwa, some
Maasai and some Gusi.
Explain why the Highland Nilotes migrated into Kenya.
(What were the reasons for Highland Nilote migration into Kenya? (Explain/discuss the
factors that led to migration of the Highland Nilotes into Kenya).)
Search for cultivable land as well as pasture and water for their livestock.
Drought, famine and other natural calamities.
Rapid population increase.
Diseases and epidemics, which afflicted both people and livestock.
Internal conflicts and rivalries. For instance, the Karamojong and Turkana exerted pressure
on other groups, such as the Iteso.
Pressure or attacks from hostile neighbouring communities.
Adventure and desire for loot and plunder.
Explain the socio-political and economic organization of the Highland Nilotes during the
pre-colonial period.
Socio-political and economic organization of the Highland Nilotes is best illustrated by the
Kalenjin as follows:
SOCIAL & POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into semi-independent territorial units known as Bororiet (borosiek in
plural).
Each Bororiet was controlled by a council of elders (Kok), which was chosen to their
position because of their wisdom and military skill.
At puberty, boys and girls were initiated and taught the values and customs of the
community, although most of the training at initiation, which culminated in circumcision,
was centred on boys, who were seen as future defenders of the community.
After circumcision, boys of the same age group entered a named age-set. There were up to
seven or eight Age-set names.
Age-sets were formed on territorial basis in order to discourage interclan disputes or
conflicts between families. The aim here was to create a unified strong community.
The Saget Ap Eito ceremony was used as a means of maintaining the age-Set system by
cycling Age-Set names. This ceremony marked the official hand-over of power from one
age-set to the other. It was performed after every 10-15 years. It took 50-100 years to go
through a cycle of age-set names. Names, years and number of age-sets varied from one
region to another.
After initiation, boys also qualified to join the junior Warrior rank in the Bororiet as a
permanent warrior cadre to defend the community and to conquer new lands.
The Kalenjin believe in the existence of one supreme God (Asis), to who they directed all
warship, prayers and petitions.
Medicinemen, rainmakers, diviners, prophets and prophetesses were highly respected in the
community.
By the middle of the 19th century, the office of the Orkoiyot emerged as the central political
and religious authority among the Nandi.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Mixed farming. The Kalenjin were basically pastoralists. They kept cattle, sheep and goats.
later, they adopted agriculture and grew Eleusine, millet, sorghum, etc.
Ironworking. In this, both men and women participated in order to produce weapons, farm
implements and other equipment.
Trade. The Kalenjin traded with Abaluhyia, the Maasai, Luo and other neighbours, to whom
they sold food, animal and iron products.
Crafts. They made pots, baskets, hunting traps, etc. They also were good in leatherwork.
Hunting and gathering. Since land inhabited by the Kalenjin was mostly fertile, they
undertook hunting and gathering as an extra leisure time and adventurous economic activity
to intensify their vigilance and to keep them alert and firmly in control of their territory
through impromptu patrols apart from supplementing their diet. Dogs, bows, arrows, traps
and spears were used in hunting and catching animals.
Outline Nandi Age-Set names.
Maina,
Chuma,
Sawe,
Korongoro,
Kipkoimet,
Kaplelach,
Kimnyige,
Nyongi.
Explain the role/functions of the council of elders among the Highland Nilotes during the
pre-colonial period.
(What were the responsibilities/duties of the council of elders among the Highland Nilotes
during the pre-colonial period?)
They maintained law and order.
They settled major disputes in the community.
They made important observations and decisions on communal matters. For instance, they
advised warriors on how or when to launch raids or attacks on their neighbouring or other
communities.
They defined grazing and habitable land for various clans and groups to avoid internal
rivalry or hostility.
They organized and presided over cultural practices, such as initiation.
They served as the final court of appeal in the community.
Explain the role/functions of the Orkoiyot among the Nandi during the pre -colonial
period.
He was both the political and religious leader of the community.
He presided over religious functions, such as sacrifices.
He advised elders on community affairs.
He advised and blessed warriors before they went to war.
He arbitrated (settled) disputes.
He was a Seer, rain maker and chief medicine man in the community.
What were the effects of migration and settlement of the Highland Nilotes into Kenya?
(Explain the consequences/impact/results of migration and settlement of the Highland Nilotes
into Kenya.)
Increased intercommunal conflicts in the region.
Cultural exchange i.e. adoption of Bantu culture by some Kalenjin groups and vice versa.
For instance, the Terik borrowed many Bantu customs and a lot of vocabulary. The Bantu
on the other hand borrowed the idea of circumcision from the Kalenjin and other highland
Nilotic groups.
Intermarriage with other groups in the region, e.g. Abagusi and the Luo.
Increased trading activities.
Displacement of people, especially those they encountered and subdued, such as Abagusi
and the Kwavi Maasai.
THE PLAIN NILOTES
Name the communities that belong to the Plain Nilotes.
The Maasai,
Samburu,
Iteso,
Turkana,
Njemps.
While some historical accounts categorise the Teso and the Turkana with the Plain Nilotes,
others include them among the Highland Nilotes.
Identify the factors that led to migration and settlement of the plain Nilotes into Kenya.
(What were the reasons for migration and settlement of the Plain Nilotes into Kenya?)
Diseases and epidemics, which afflicted both people and livestock.
Internal feuds i.e. raids and counter raids against each other.
Pressure or hostility from neighbouring and other communities.
The spirit of adventure i.e. desire to experience life in a new land.
population pressure.
natural calamities such as drought, famine, etc.
Search for cultivable land (particularly the Kwavi Maasai).
Their nomadic lifestyle, due to which they kept moving from place to place (in search of
pasture and water) without a definite settlement or home.
Analyse/discuss the migration and settlement of the Maasai into Kenya. (Trace/explain the
origin of the Maasai.)
The Maasai and the original Kalenjin speakers first lived in the northern Lake Turkana area.
They may have entered east Africa around 1000AD. Being nomadic pastoralists, they
probably migrated mainly due to the need for fresh grazing land and water for their large
herd.
In spite of their close association with the original Kalenjin speakers in the Northern Lake
Turkana region and elsewhere, the Maasai may have developed separately, as shown by the
different languages and cultures among and between them and their previous associates.
Around 1500AD, the Maasai began to move within the area between mount Elgon and
mount Kamalinga and reached the Uasingishu plateau.
Around 1700AD, they went southwards and established themselves in the area previously
occupied by the Kalenjin, who had migrated ahead of them. They assimilated some of the
people they conquered, such as the Sirikwa.
By 1800, the Maasai had occupied much of the Central Kenya plains and north-central
Tanzania. By that time, they were grazing their livestock throughout east Africa, especially
in the Rift valley. They met and waged war against communities such as the Kalenjin,
Akamba and Abagusi. They were very fierce warriors and could not allow a stranger into
their land.
Because of their nomadic lifestyle, they were not able to form a kingdom.
Towards 1750, the Maasai community were weakened by internal rivalry, among other
problems.
British colonization of Kenya at the end of the 19th century brought Maasai power to an end
Describe two main groups into which the Maasai are divided.
. The Purko (Ilmaasai), who are strictly pastoralists.
i. The Iloikop (Kwavi) Maasai, who practise mixed farming.
Explain the problems experienced by the Maasai towards 1750AD.
(Explain the factors that weakened the Maasai towards mid 18th century.)
Natural disasters, especially drought and famine.
Diseases such as Small-pox, cholera, Pleura-Pneumonia and Rinderpest, which killed large
numbers of people and livestock.
A series of civil wars between the Iloikop and Ilmaasai, especially after the death of Laibon
Mbatian, when his two sons Lenana and Sendeyo were involved in a succession dispute.
Frequent wars between the Maasai and the neighbouring communities such as the Agikuyu
and the Nandi.
Rise of the Nandi, who expanded their power over the already weak Maasai.
British rule. British colonization of Kenya at the end of the 19th century brought Maasai
power to an end.
1. Explain the Socio-political and economic organization of the Maasai during the pre-colonial
period.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into two groups, i.e. the Pastoral Purko Maasai and the agricultural
Kwavi Maasai.
They were divided into five clans.
They circumcised both boys and girls at puberty, upon which the initiates entered an ageset.
he initiated young men joined the warrior class: the Moran. The Moran lived in special
Manyattas and were not allowed to marry until they became junior elders.
They had diviners and medicine people.
By the 19th century, the Purko Maasai had created the office of the Oloibon (ritual leader),
who officiated at religious ceremonies.
They believed in the existence of and worshipped one God (Enkai).
Among the most important ceremonies was the Eunto, which marked the graduation of the
Morans into junior elders.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
The largest political unit was the tribal section, regarded as the geographical nation.
The Age-set spokesmen handled affairs involving interclan cooperation.
Each clan was administered by a council of elders chosen because of their outstanding
military performance and because of their senior position in the community.
The Morans defended the community and conducted raids.
A military leader led the warriors during war.
Junior elders dealt with day to day issues and maintained peace.
Senior elders handled the difficult judicial and political decisions.
By the end of the 19th century, the Oloibon (religious leader) had acquired political power.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Gathering of vegetables, roots and wild fruits.
Nomadic pastoralism, keeping cattle, sheep and goats.
Trade with neighbouring communities e.g. the Akamba, Agikuyu and Luo.
Crafts, e.g. making Baskets and ornaments, etc.
Iron smelting, which enabled them to make spears, mainly for defence purposes.
Explain the role/functions of the council of elders among the Maasai during the pre -
colonial period.
They administered justice by listening to and solving serious cases.
They were the final court of appeal.
They advised warriors on raiding techniques. Indeed, they organized some raids.
They headed and presided over religious and other ceremonies.
They were in charge of sharing out or dividing war booty (loot), which largely comprised
livestock.
What were the effects/results of migration and settlement of the Plain Nilotes into
Kenya?
(Discuss the impact of migration and settlement of the Plain Nilotes into Kenya.)
Displacement of the communities they came into contact with. For instance, as they
expanded during the 18th century, they subdued the Nandi in the north-west.
Assimilation of some Southern Cushites.
Adoption of some cultural practices from the Southern Cushites. For instance, they adopted
the custom of the Age-set System and circumcision, in addition to adopting some Kalenjin
vocabulary.
Communities like the Nandi were influenced by the Maasai to adopt the institution of
Prophet or Diviner from the institution of Laibon among the Maasai.
Acquisition of the practice of farming by a section of the Maasai from their agricultural
neighbours in the Rift Valley. For instance, the Iloikop (Kwavi) Maasai became mixed
farmers.
Trade, which increased and grew, particularly with their neighbours, such as the Akamba
and Agikuyu.
Intermarriage with neighbouring communities, such as the Akamba, Agikuyu and even the
Kalenjin, with who they interacted, even through fighting.
Change of fighting tactics. Other groups in Kenya were influenced by Maasai bravery and
fierce nature.
Increased warfare, and conflicts as communities fought to control resources.
Increase of populations.
Explain how Kenyan communities interacted during the pre-colonial period.
(Analyse/discuss intercommunal interaction in Kenya during the pre-colonial period.)
In pre-colonial Kenya, communities mainly interacted in the following ways.
Intermarriage.
Trade.
Warfare.
Linguistic Assimilation.
Cultural Assimilation.
Sporting activities, e.g. wrestling and bull fighting.
CHAPTER 5
THE PEOPLES OF KENYA UPTO THE 19TH
CENTURY
3. (a) Name the places in Kenya where tools attributed to Homoerectus have been found.
(b) Name the Late Stone Age tools that have been found in Kenya.
4. Identify the types of evidence by which Kenya is proved to have been inhabited by
humankind as far back as two million years ago or earlier.
Tools attributed to Homohabilis were found in Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana.
Hand axes, cleavers and other tools attributed to Homoerectus have been found at
Olorgesailie near lake Magadi, Mtongwe near Mombasa, around lakes Victoria and Turkana
and at Kariandusi.
Tools associated with the late Stone age such as the Crescent, arrowheads, pottery, bone
harpoons and ornamental egg shells have been found near lake Naivasha, lake Nakuru,
Lukenya hills and Athi river.
Microlith tools, axe heads, polished stones, stone bowels, platters and grinding stones have
been discovered all over Kenya.
Iron was used as far back as 270AD. Evidence of iron use have been found at Urewe near
Ng‟iya in Siaya and in Kwale at the coast.
Animals such as cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in Kenya during the late stone
age.
Describe the lifestyle of early inhabitants of Kenya.
Their language resembled that of the Khoisan.
They originally were nomadic peoples.
They gathered fruits and dug up tubers and roots to supplement their diet.
They used stone tools, bows and arrows.
They fished in rivers and lakes, using harpoons.
They lived in rock shelters and caves.
They made and used pottery.
They buried or cremated their dead.
Because of their nomadic lifestyle, they lived in seasonal camps and had no permanent
homes.
Being hunter-gatherers, they were very few, with very few belongings i.e. a variety of stone
tools, bows and arrows.
By the 7th century BC, they had learnt and practised fishing. They started living in semi
permanent homes of rock shelters and caves.
After acquiring the skill of food production, they settled down in more permanent homes
and owned more materials such as grinding stones, pestles and stone bowels, pots and
calabashes.
They kept humpless long-horned cattle and grew food-crops like sorghum and millet.
They passed on many customs such as circumcision, age-set organization, the taboo against
eating fish, etc. There was a lot of cultural exchange between them and the new comers.
These early inhabitants of Kenya may have been subdued by other stronger peoples,
particularly the Bantu and the Nilotes through intermarriage, assimilation and war.
Identify the communities that descended from early inhabitants of Kenya and much of
east Africa.
The Irak and Burungi of Tanzania,
The Boni, Dahalo and Sanye of the River Tana basin.
The Nguye and Okuro in western Kenya.
Some remnants of these early inhabitants speak the languages of the groups near or with
whom they live. E.g. some speak Kikuyu while others speak Olmaa: the language of the
Maasai. A majority of them speak Kalenjin dialects. The Kalenjin refer to them as Okiek
while the Maasai call them Dorobo. In western Kenya, the Nguye and Okuro were totally
assimilated by the Luo and Bantu groups.
Identify the races of people that make up modern Kenya.
Africans.
Europeans.
Asians.
Arabs.
Identify three main linguistic groups into which African Kenyan communities are
divided.
The Bantu,
The Nilotes,
The Cushites.
Of these groups, Bantu speakers form the largest group, followed by the Nilotes. The Cushites
form the smallest.
THE CUSHITES
Describe two groups of the Kenyan Cushites.
The Southern Cushites, who moved southwards and settled in the highlands and plains of
Kenya and northern Tanzania. They were later assimilated by the groups that found them in
the region, such as the Irak, Boni, Burungi, Nilotes and Bantu. In Kenya, the only remaining
Southern Cushites are the Dahalo, who live in the lower course of River Tana.
The Eastern Cushites, who may have first settled in the Horn of Africa i.e. somewhere to
the north of Kenya: either in Ethiopia or Somalia after migrating from Arabia in 1000BC.
They then migrated into Somalia and reached northern Kenya in 1000AD.
Identify Kenyan communities that make up the Eastern Cushites.
The Borana,
The Somali,
The Oromo,
Gabra,
The Rendile,
The Burji.
The Eastern Cushites migrated into Kenya much later than the Southern Cushites.
Explain/trace the migration and settlement of the Oromo and Borana into Kenya.
THE OROMO
They arrived in Kenya in the 16th century and settled on the eastern shores of lake Turkana.
They tried to move eastwards but were stopped by the Somali. They therefore moved
south-eastwards and reached the coast in around 1600AD.
In the area around Shungwaya, they confronted and forced the Mijikenda and Pokomo to
leave. They occupied Malindi and Kilifi.
Even before their arrival in Kenya, the Oromo had conflicts with the Somali, which
continued up to early 20th century when both signed an agreement by which they settled in
their present homeland. Today, the Oromo are found on the southern part of the river Tana
and are neighbours to the Pokomo.
THE BORANA
The Borana, who are part of the Oromo-speaking people of southern Ethiopia, migrated into
Kenya in the last quarter of the 19th and the first quarter of the 20th century. They were
running away from the heavy taxation and rule of Menelik ii).
They spread into Kenya and settled in Wajir, Marsabit and Moyale.
About 1000AD, more Borana groups migrated into present-day Kenya from Somalia due to
war between Somali nationalists and British colonialists.
Explain the economic activities of the Borana during the pre-colonial period.
They were nomadic pastoralists. They kept cattle, sheep, camels and goats.
They traded with their neighbours and acquired grains in exchange for livestock. Their
neighbours included the Pokomo and the Mijikenda.
Those who settled along river Tana grew some food crops.
Discuss the socio-Political organization of the Borana in the pre-colonial period.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into clans.
Each clan was led by elders.
The residential section was the camp.
The senior married man was recognized as the head of the camp. He was referred to as
Abba Olla. His wife‟s hut was built on the extreme left of the camp.
The huts of others would be built from left to right, depending on their rank.
There was a Gada system, based on age-sets. Each Gada produced its own leader called
Abba Boku.
The Borana had two kinship groups: the Gona and the Sabbo.
The man called Abba Wara, headed the family while the wife (Hatimana) was the female
head of the household.
The Borana worshipped one God, who they called Wak.
The religious leader in the community was called Qaalu.
The Borana were patrilinial. The first male born would inherit all the property of the father.
Today, Borana territory extends up to the area north of the river Tana.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into two halves (Moieties).
The Moieties were subdivided into submoieties, which were then divided into clans. Each
clan comprised related families.
A hereditary leader (Kallu) headed each moiety.
The Kallu was a Judge and spiritual leader, who arbitrated in minor disputes.
There was an Age-set system, on which their military organization was based.
The Borana also had a Gada system, which comprised eleven grades. Each Gada class
lasted eight years and passed through eleven grades from birth to death.
Members of the Gada elected a Gada council, which made decisions.
Trace/discuss the migration and settlement of the Somali into Kenya.
The Somali were living in Mogadishu by the 10
th century AD. Around that time, they began
to move southwards,, probably because the Oromo presented a threat, or because they were
looking for pasture, since they were nomadic pastoralists.
Between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries AD, many of the Somali converted to
Islam and established the Ajuran state near Mogadishu.
By the 17th century, the Somali pushed the Oromo out of their traditional homeland near
river Juba. The Oromo responded by migrating into Kenya.
Identify/explain the economic activities of the Somali in the pre-colonial period.
They were nomadic pastoralists. They kept donkeys, camels, goats and cattle.
Some of them, particularly those who lived in Oases regions and along river valleys,
practised subsistence agriculture. They grew grain crops, vegetables, dates and bananas.
They practised iron smelting and made iron tools like swords, knives, bangles and
arrowheads.
They hunted wild animals and gathered roots, vegetables and fruits.
They engaged in crafts such as leatherwork. They made handbags, belts and clothes.
Some of them who lived near rivers and along the Indian ocean practised fishing, using
fence traps, hooks, and lines.
They traded, mainly with their Bantu neighbours, particularly the Bantu, to who they sold
iron implements and leather products.
Discuss the socio-political organization of the Somali in the pre-colonial period.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
They were organized into clans.
The clans were headed by a council of elders, who settled disputes and maintained law and
order, among their other roles in the community.
Circumcision marked the transition from childhood to adulthood and was mandatory for
both boys and girls.
They believed in one God (wak).
Men took care of animals as women concentrated on domestic activities.
Being nomadic pastoralists, they moved from place to place in search of pasture.
They converted to Islam and adopted the Islamic way of life.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into clans.
The clans were headed by councils of elders, who maintained law and order.
After circumcision, young people formed age-sets.
With Islam, the political system changed to give way to the new leaders: the Sheikhs and
Islamic Law (Sharia)
Today, the Somali constitute the largest single group of Cushites in Kenya.
State the reasons for migration and settlement of the Cushites into Kenya in the pre -
colonial period.
Family feuds (internal rivalry) back in their original homeland.
Population increase or pressure in their area of origin.
Search for better pastures for their livestock.
Outbreak of diseases in their area of origin, which affected people and livestock.
Famine and drought in their original home-area.
Hostility and attacks by the neighbouring communities, such as the Somali.
The spirit of adventure, especially the Eastern Cushites.
Heavy taxation by the rulers of the areas they originally lived in, especially Menelik ii).
Explain the economic activities of the Cushites in the pre-colonial period.
Pastoralism, characterised by keeping of camels, cattle, sheep and goats, which provided
them with milk and meat and gave them prestige.
Trade, mainly with their Bantu neighbours such as the Mijikenda and Pokomo.
Fishing, particularly by Cushites living along the coast and near river Tana.
Agriculture, also practised by those living near river Tana. Grains, peas, beans, pepper and
other crops were cultivated.
Hunting. Wild animals were hunted for meat, ivory, hides and skins.
Discuss the social organization of the Cushites in the pre-colonial period.
They were organized into clans, each of which comprised related families with a common
ancestor.
They had the Age-set system.
They believed in one God.
By the end of the 16th century, most Cushites had been converted to Islam through
interaction with Muslim immigrants and therefore adopted Islamic culture.
Explain the principles under which the Age-Set system operated among the Cushites in
the pre-colonial period.
(Explain how the Age Set system functioned among the Cushites in the pre-colonial period).
Boys were grouped into age-sets after circumcision (between 10-15 years of age).
The Age-set system was based on about ten groups.
Once placed in a set, a boy remained in it all his life.
Age-sets provided the community with professional warriors.
Senior age-sets were retired from active public life and were settled in different territories.
A ceremony was performed at the end of every age-set cycle to keep the age-set system
strong.
Identify religious aspects/practices among the Cushites during the pre -colonial period.
(Explain the influence of religion among the Cushites in the pre-colonial period).
They believed in one God.
They referred to God by different names. For instance, the Oromo called him Wak.
They regarded God as all-powerful and controller of everybody‟s destiny.
They prayed to God for all their needs.
Discuss the political organization of the Cushites in the pre-colonial period.
Each clan existed and operated independently, except in times of difficulty, e.g. in case of
an invasion, when clans formed alliances to face the enemy.
Each clan was headed by a council of elders, who were major role players, particularly in
maintenance of law and order.
After circumcision, young people formed age-sets.
With Islam, the political system changed to give way to the new leaders: the Sheikhs and
Islamic Law (Sharia)
Explain the role/duties of the council of elders among the Cushites in the pre -colonial
period. (Explain the functions of the council of elders among the Cushites in the precolonial
period.)
They presided over assemblies.
They maintained law and order.
They served as ritual experts.
They settled land disputes.
They had the final say or were the final court of appeal in decision-making.
They had the final power and were the final authority, even among clans that had the Sultan,
such as the Somali.
What were the effects/results of migration and settlement of the Cushites into Kenya?
(Explain the consequences of the migration and settlement of the Cushites into Kenya).
High mortality rate due to fighting among various groups during migration. E.g. the Somali
and Oromo frequently engaged in warfare, in the process of which many people were killed.
Displacement. As new groups came into Kenya, they pushed out others. For example, in
their southward movement in the 16th century AD, the Oromo forced the Mijikenda and
Pokomo out of Shungwaya.
Exchange of cultural practices as some of the communities interacted and formed alliances.
E.g. the Samburu and the Rendile formed an alliance against the Turkana.
Increased population as various peoples migrated into Kenya.
introduction of new cultural practices in Kenya. For example, the taboo against fish
consumption among some Bantu speakers has been traced to the Cushites. Other new
cultural practices include circumcision and the age-set system.
Intermarriage,, e.g. between the Pokomo and the Borana.
Intensification of trading activities in Kenya. For instance, by the 19th century, they were
trading with the Samburu and Maasai.
Population redistribution in Kenya. For example, the Mijikenda were scattered at and from
Shungwaya and had to change their course of migration.
They adopted mixed farming methods, which they got from the Bantu.
They converted to Islam, which they spread among their neighbours.
BANTU SPEAKERS
ORIGIN
Who are Bantu-speakers?
(State the meaning of the term Bantu.)
The term Bantu refers to a group of people who speak related languages. They constitute the
largest language group in Africa and occupy two thirds of the sub-Saharan region.
Trace the origin of the Bantu.
The original homeland of the Bantu was between eastern Nigeria and the Cameroon
highlands.
They moved from Cameroon through the Congo forest into the lake region of east Africa,
Zambia and Shaba province of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
They then spread into east, central and southern Africa.
Due to their size and strength, they managed to conquer and now occupy two thirds of subSaharan
Africa.
They form the majority of Kenya‟s population.
2. (a) Describe Bantu migration.
Bantu migration was slow and gradual, involving small groups at a time.
Around 500BC, they were living in the Congo forest, which was a major dispersal point
from where they began to migrate.
Their movement was in four major waves, two of which led to their settlement in Kenya.
Describe four major waves of Bantu migration into east Africa.
(In what four waves were the Bantu divided as they migrated into east Africa?)
That which moved south-eastwards through the area west of lake Victoria, which became
the second dispersal point and from where some groups, especially the Western Bantu,
passed through present-day Uganda and eventually settled in Western Kenya from 1000AD
as others, such as the Banyoro and Baganda, settled in Uganda.
That which moved and entered east Africa at a point south of lake Victoria and proceeded
eastwards across northern Tanzania up to the area between Taita hills and mount
Kilimanjaro. At this point, some Bantu groups such as the Sukuma, Kuria, Nyamwezi and
Haya were left in Tanzania.
That which proceeded northwards from the area between Taita hills and mount Kilimanjaro
up to Shungwaya.
That which proceeded from Shungwaya up to the Kenyan coast. These became referred to
as the Eastern Bantu.
Identify the dispersal points through which the Bantu migrated from and settled in
various areas.
The Bantu migrated from and settled into various places through four major dispersal
points, namely:
The Congo forest
The area west of Lake Victoria,
The area between Taita hills and mount Kilimanjaro,
Shungwaya.
State the reasons for the migration and settlement of the Bantu into Kenya.
Population pressure due to food production, enabled by their knowledge in ironworking,
with which they made and used better farm implements.
Their might and strength due to better weapons and farm tools, which enabled them to
easily fight and defeat other people and to clear new lands for agriculture.
Internal pressure (family or clan rivalry).
Natural calamities such as famine, drought, etc.
Search for new farmland.
The spirit of adventure i.e. their desire to taste life in new lands.
invasions and frequent attacks by warring neighbours.
Diseases and epidemics, which affected both people and livestock.
Discuss Socio-political organization of the Kenya Bantu during the pre-colonial period.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
o They were divided into clans, with the clan as the basic unit in the community.
o They practised circumcision.
o They believed in the existence of a supernatural being: God.
o Diviners and medicine-people were highly valued. Some communities had seers.
o They had rituals that marked different stages of life, e.g. birth, naming, circumcision,
marriage and death.
o They had a regimental (Age-Set) system. circumcision formed the basis for an age-set and
age-grade system.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into clans, each with a clan head.
They had councils of elders, who settled disputes and presided over ceremonies.
Some like the Wanga were centralized under monarchs. The Wanga were led by a King
(Nabongo).
Some, like the Mijikenda, lived in fortified villages.
They were organized into Age-sets and age-grades.
They had warriors chosen from the Age-sets to defend the community or enrich it through
cattle raids on their neighbours.
Explain the economic activities of the Kenya Bantu in the pre-colonial period.
They participated in local, regional and international trade.
They practised farming.
They kept cattle, sheep, goats and other domestic animals.
Some were hunter-gatherers.
They practised crafts such as iron smelting, basketry and pottery.
Some communities such as the Mijikenda practised fishing.
MIGRATION & SETTLEMENT OF THE BANTU INTO KENYA
Describe two main groups in which the Bantu were divided as they migrated into Kenya.
The Western Bantu, who were part of the first wave of migrants that moved southeastwards
from the Congo forest through the area west of lake Victoria, passing through
present-day Uganda, where some of them settled as others proceeded to and settled in
Western Kenya from 1000AD.
The Eastern Bantu, i.e. Bantu-speaking groups that occupy the area between the rift valley
and coastal Kenya, who entered Kenya after migrating eastwards across northern Tanzania.
They had began to settle in Kenya by 1000AD and may have followed different directions
to get to their present homeland.
Identify the communities that belong to:
(c) The Western Bantu,
(d) The Eastern Bantu.
The Western Bantu include:
Abagusi,
Abaluhyia,
Abasuba,
Abakuria.
The Eastern Bantu include:
The Mijikenda,
The Pokomo,
The Taita,
Agikuyu,
Ameru,
Akamba,
Aembu.
THE WESTERN BANTU
Explain the migration and settlement of Abagusi, Abakuria and Abasuba into Kenya.
ABAGUSI
Abagusi may have originated from a place known to them as Misiri, under their ruler and
ancestor called Kwitu.
From Misiri, Abagusi and some Abaluhyia groups migrated to the Mount Elgon region
where they lived for several generations.
Around 1500AD, Abagusi, Abakuria and a section of Abalogoli migrated down Nzoyia
river valley and settled at Goye in Yimbo and near Ramogi hill and other areas on the
eastern shores of lake Victoria.
Due to arrival of Luo Ancestors In the lake region around 1550AD, Abagusi were pushed to
Alego, Kisumu, Sakwa and Asembo areas.
Shortly after 1600AD, drought forced Abagusi to migrate and settle in the Kano plains.
Their farther migration eastwards brought them into conflicts with the Kipsigis. Because of
this, they moved to the fertile Kisii highlands and other parts of their present homeland,
such as Kitutu, South Mugirango and others.
In spite of conflicts with the Luo, Maasai and Kipsigis, Abagusi exhibited and practised
good interaction, due to which they intermarried, traded and had other forms of exchange
with these communities.
ABAKURIA
Abakuria live in south Nyanza. Their traditions indicate that they are related to the
Abalogoli of Abaluhyia and Abagusi too.
They also trace their origin to the Mount Elgon region and maintain that they came from a
place called Misiri.
Abakuria may have migrated alongside Abagusi up to 1500AD when they took their
separate direction.
Abakuria settled briefly around the shores of Lake Victoria, where they interacted with the
Luo and the Southern Cushites. Abakuria may have picked up the practice of circumcision
and Age-set organization from the Southern Cushites.
Some of the Kuria clans may have come from northern Tanzania.
By 1800AD, Abakuria had all settled in south Nyanza, where they again met and continued
interacting with Abagusi. Indeed, some clans of Abagusi originally settled in Kuria territory
in the second half of the 18th century.
ABASUBA
Abasuba occupy Mfangano and Rusinga islands on lake Victoria, where they settled from
1750AD, after arriving as refugees fleeing from Buganda. Other Suba people were
displaced by the in coming Luo.
Suba migration was mainly triggered by fighting in Buganda and Busoga, following the
assassination of Kyabbagu by some of his children. Kyabbagu was King of Buganda. As a
result of the assassination, there was a struggle for succession to the throne, which made
some of the groups around Lake Victoria to flee.
In their migration from Busoga and Buganda, most of the Suba spoke either Luganda or
lusoga.
The Suba later interacted with the Luo as they entered Kenya, although they at first saw the
Luo as a threat to them. They traded and intermarried with the Luo among other practices.
Some Abasuba settled at Gwasi and Kaksingiri in later years. They adopted the social
customs of the Luo. Today, most Abasuba have adopted Luo culture.
Because of Luo influence, Abasuba have almost lost their original language and way of life.
Explain how Abaluhyia migrated and settled into Kenya.
(Analyse the migration and settlement of Abaluhyia into Kenya.)
Luhyia oral tradition traces their origin to an area called Misiri. Historical evidence shows
that Abaluhyia resulted from intermarriage between various ethnic groups in the course of
their migration into Kenya. Buluhyia is an area in which Nilotes, Bantu and some Cushites
interacted.
Luhyia migration and settlement into Kenya started around 300AD. Their most recent
ancestors spread from eastern Uganda from around 1300AD. Most of them may have
originated from the mount Elgon region and then settled in Bukhayo, Marama, Tiriki,
Bunyore, Wanga, Maragoli, Marachi, Kisa, Samia, Idakho, Isukha, Bungoma and other
Bukusu areas, Bunyala, Busonga, etc.
As they migrated, they assimilated other groups, such as the southern and eastern Cushites
as well as Southern Nilotes.
Between 1550-1750AD, Luhyia society began to take shape. By 1883, Abaluhyia had fully
emerged as a community.
Abaluhyia interacted with Nilotic speakers such as the Maasai, Kalenjin and Luo, which led
to a lot of cultural exchange.
The interaction of Abaluhyia with several other communities perhaps explains why there
exists so many clans and dialects among Abaluhyia. In fact, the term Luhyia means Family.
Abaluhyia means People Of the Family or Family-people.
Explain how Luhyia interaction with Nilotic speakers facilitated cultural exchange.
(In what ways did Luhyia interaction with Nilotic speakers lead to cultural exchange?)
Some Luhyia clans such as Abashimuli of the Idakho were formed.
Some Abaluhyia picked up and started speaking the languages of the people they interacted
with. This is more so with the Marachi, Kisa and Samia, who started speaking the Luo
language. On the other hand, the people with whom Abaluhyia interacted adopted Luhyia
dialects.
From the Kalenjin, the Luhyia learnt cattle keeping and age-set organization.
Some such as the Wanga bought or borrowed military services from the Maasai, who also
had entered Luhyia territory.
Sharing of practices, particularly in the border region resulted. E.g. Southern Luhyialand,
especially Bunyala, Samia and Busonga (Usonga) have been heavily influenced by the Luo
due to sharing of language and rituals, such as removal of teeth.
Identify the dialects that constitute Luhyia community.
(What dialects is the Luhyia community made of?)
Eighteen major dialects constitute Abaluhyia. These are:
Tiriki,
Maragoli,
Isukha,
Idaho,
Banyore,
Kisa,
Batsotso,
Marama,
Wanga,
Banyala,
Batura,
Kabarasi,
Bukusu,
Tachoni,
Khayo,
Marachi,
Basonga,
Samia.
Each of these dialects consists of several clans and tended to exist independently, through
remotely connected ties to the rest of Abaluhyia. In fact, Abaluhyia were constituted as a
community in 1947, when the British colonial government administered all these Luhyia
dialects as a single entity.
Trace the migration and settlement of the Wanga into Kenya.
(Analyse/explain Wanga migration and settlement into Kenya.)
The Wanga Kingdom was founded by the Bahima, who had migrated from western Uganda
and who settled at Imanga hills under their King: Muhima, who was referred to by the title
Nabongo. Between 1544-1652, Nabongo Muhima founded the Hima dynasty by uniting the
different clans that had settled at Imanga.
Shortly after 1652, the Hima dynasty was replaced by the Bashitsetse dynasty under their
ruler called Wanga. It was after this ruler (Wanga) that the Kingdom was later named, to
become Abawanga or Bawanga (people of Wanga). In most cases, the community is
referred to just by the name Wanga.
The Bashitsetse established a more centralized system of government.
During the reign of Nabongo Wamukoya, a group rebelled and formed a parallel kingdom
known as Wanga Mukulu of Kweyu. During Nabongo Mumia‟s time, Wanga Mukulu was
ruled by Nabongo Sakwa.
The Abawanga suffered attacks from their neighbours. To resist these attacks, Nabongo had
to seek assistance from the Europeans. They got assistance from General Hobley.
The British expanded the Wanga traditional rule and made Nabongo a Paramount Chief. As
a Paramount Chief, Nabongo Mumia ruled what was known as Eastern Uganda, which
include the present Nyanza and Western provinces and parts of Rift Valley (Turkana, Uasin
Ngishu, Trans Nzoia, Nandi, Bomet, Kericho, Buret, Baringo, West Pokot, Keiyo,
Marakwet and Nakuru) up to Mai Mahiu.
Through Mumia, the British assisted the Abawanga to fight their enemies e.g. the
Ababukusu, Luo, and Iteso. Mumia died in 1949.
Identify the Kings (Nabongos) that reigned over Wanga.
Apart from Muhima and Wanga, Other kings (Nabongos) that reigned over Wanga were:
Nabongo Wamukoya Netia (1760-1787),
Nabongo Osundwa (1787-1814),
Nabongo Wamukoya (1814-1841),
Nabongo Shiundu –(1841-1882),
Nabongo Mumia (1882-1949).
Describe the political organization of the Wanga in the pre-colonial period.
The Wanga are of special interest because of their centralized system of government, which
no other Luhyia or Bantu group in Kenya had.
They were headed by a king (Nabongo).
The office of Nabongo was hereditary.
Nabongo was assisted by a chief minister and an army commander.
Nabongo levied taxes on the conquered communities and controlled trade in his kingdom.
Nabongo mainly appointed members of the royal family as officials to administer the
provinces.
Apart from the Wanga, all other Kenya Bantu had no centralized authority. Some Western
Bantu communities such as the Luhyia were affected by the spread of warfare in the
Western Kenya region, so the political set-up among some communities had to be
reorganized. The centralized system of government such as that of the Wanga was most
reliable.
Discuss the socio political organization of the Western Bantu during the pre -colonial
period.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
They were organized in clans. The clan was the basic unit of their political and social
organization.
Circumcision of boys was a very important practice, especially among Abaluhyia and
Abagusi. It was at circumcision that the boys were taught the values and customs of their
homeland. While Abagusi and Abakuria circumcised their females, the rest of the western
Bantu did not. Some Western Bantu communities like the Khayo, Samia, Marachi and
Abasuba do not have the practice of circumcision.
After initiation, the boys joined age-sets. Various age-sets had various duties, e.g. provision
of warriors to defend the community, raid for animals,, help one another in tasks such as
hunting, building huts, harvesting, etc. Senior age-sets advised the junior ones, settled
disputes, distributed war booty, etc.
They believed in one God. They regarded God as controller of everything, who continues to
influence man‟s life, even after man‟s death. They called God by different names. They
also believed in ancestral spirits, to whom they poured libations and offered sacrifices.
Medicine men and diviners were highly valued in the society. Sorcerers and witch doctors
were hated, because they were believed to use charms and medicine to harm others.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
Apart from the Wanga, the Western Bantu were politically organized as follows in the precolonial
period:
They were under village councils run by elders.
They were categorized into age-set systems, which provided the community with defence
and security.
Positions of leadership were hereditary.
Explain the functions/role of the council of elders among the Western Bantu during the
pre-colonial period.
They maintained and ensured law and order in the community.
They served as the final court of appeal in all matters.
They had power to declare, stop or call off war.
They presided over religious and other communal functions.
They served as ritual experts.
They settled land disputes.
Explain the economic activities of the Western Bantu during the pre-colonial period.
Keeping livestock. They kept cattle, sheep and goats, which provided them with milk, meat,
hides and skins.
Agriculture. They grew grains, pulses and root crops such as cassava, arrow roots, potatoes
and yams as well as legumes like beans and peas.
Trade. Abagusi gave their Luo neighbours grains, iron implements and soap-stones in
exchange for livestock, salt, hides, milk, pots, baskets, etc. The case was similar between
the Luhyia and their Nandi and Luo neighbours.
Fishing. They used hooks and lines, basket nets and fence traps to catch fish. They sold
some of the fish they caught to neighbouring communities.
Ironworking. This enabled them to have better weapons and farm implements, which aided
their migration and settlement in various places before they finally settled in their present
homeland.
Crafts. They were good in pottery and basketry, which boosted their trade and other
economic activities.
THE EASTERN BANTU
Who are the Eastern Bantu?
The Eastern Bantu are Bantu-speaking groups that occupy the area between the rift valley
and coastal Kenya.
Identify the communities that belong to the Eastern Bantu.
The Mijikenda,
The Pokomo,
The Taita,
The Agikuyu,
The Ameru,
The Akamba
The Aembu.
Identify two main classifications of the Eastern Bantu.
(Into what two main groups are the Eastern Bantu divided?)
The Coastal Bantu.
The Highland Bantu.
Name the communities that belong to:
(c) The Coastal Bantu,
(d) The Highland Bantu.
The Coastal Bantu include:
The Mijikenda,
The Pokomo,
The Taita.
The Highland Bantu include:
The Akamba,
Agikuyu,
Ameru,
Aembu and Mbeere.
THE COASTAL BANTU
Trace/explain the origin of the Coastal Bantu.
They probably were the first Bantu people to settle in Kenya.
Their ancestors may have moved from a dispersal point west of Lake Victoria through
northern Tanzania to the area between Taita hills and Mount Kilimanjaro.
Others such as the Mijikenda moved towards the coast, while the Chagga of Tanzania
settled to the south. The Taita remained on the hills as the Mijikenda and other groups
moved along the coast up to Shungwaya, which may have been somewhere between rivers
Juba and Tana. The present highland Bantu moved westwards and eventually occupied their
present home areas.
The Shungwaya dispersal mainly resulted from the southward expansion of the Oromo by
1600AD. The Mijikenda groups started settling in their present home areas in the course of
1700AD. By the beginning of the 19th century, they had settled in their present homeland.
The Pokomo on the other hand moved from Shungwaya, following the river Tana. Here,
they interacted with Cushites such as the Oromo and the Somali.
Who are the Mijikenda?
Mijikenda is a Kiswahili word that means nine clans. The Mijikenda comprise the nine
communities that originally inhabited the nine settlements called Kaya in the immediate
coastal hinterland.
Name the nine communities the constitute (make up) the Mijikenda.
The Giriama,
Kauma,
Chonyi,
Kambe,
Ribe,
Jibana,
Rabai,
Duruma,
Digo.
Analyse/trace the migration and settlement of the Mijikenda and Pokomo into Kenya.
THE MIJIKENDA
The Mijikenda trace their point of origin to Shungwaya, which in Bantu means “To be
driven away”.
From Shungwaya, the Bantu were forced to move southwards by the Oromo, who also
stopped their northward migration around the 16th century AD. The Somali also joined the
Oromo in forcing the Mijikenda out of Shungwaya, from where the Mijikenda moved in
small groups, which explains why they settled in different places and why today the
Mijikenda exist and are identified by their small groups or clans.
The Mijikenda settled in fortified villages, just inland from the coast. Each of the nine
groups settled in their own separate ridges, which are commonly referred to as Kaya, a word
that means „towns‟. The term Mijikenda itself expresses that the community consists of
nine related groups.
Each Kaya was fortified with tree trunks. Even after settling in their present homeland, their
main enemies were the Oromo and the Somali.
By the 19th century, the Mijikenda had interacted and established themselves as middlemen
in the Long Distance trade between the Akamba and the Waswahili at the coast.
THE POKOMO
Ancestors of the Pokomo lived with those of the Mijikenda at Shungwaya, but the Pokomo
moved southwards and settled along river Tana, where they interacted with Cushitic
communities. Population pressure and Oromo attacks were the main reasons for Pokomo
movement from Shungwaya.
THE TAITA
Name the three hills inhabited by the Taita.
Mangea hill, where they first settled.
Davida,
Sagalla,
Kisigan.
Trace/analyse migration and settlement of the Taita into Kenya.
The Taita are a people of mixed origin, though most of them trace their origin to
Shungwaya.
They first settled on Mangea hill in the 16th century, from where they migrated to their
present home areas.
They live on three hills i.e. Davida, Sagalla and Kisigan.
Identify Taita clans and their origins.
According to their oral tradition, Taita clans are of the following origins:
The Wasadu, who originated from the Oromo.
The Wanyanya, who originated from the Maasai, Oromo and Akamba.
The Wanya, who originated from the Mijikenda, Agikuyu and Shambala.
The Shambala, who originated from Tanzania.
The Wasann, who originated from the Pokomo, Akamba and Shambala.
The Wasasadu, who originated from the pare in Tanzania.
The Waikumi, who originated from the Maasai and Akamba.
These clans emerged as a people after many years of interaction.
ORGANIZATION OF THE COASTAL BANTU
Describe the socio-political systems among the coastal Bantu during the pre-colonial
period.
They were divided into clans, each with its council of elders (Kambi), which served as the
final court of appeal in all matters as the highest ruling council.
The council of elders comprised the highest level of Age-set systems as part of the
organization of the society.
Under the elders were prophetesses and prophets (Wafisi), who had authority over all
religious and ritual matters by administering oath and conducting all traditional ceremonies
at every level e.g. circumcision, harvesting, planting, cleansing, reconciliation, etc.
In short, the social and political institutions among the coastal Bantu were closely
interwoven.
Describe the economic activities of the Coastal Bantu during the pre-colonial period.
Agriculture. They mainly cultivated grains, with which they traded.
Keeping livestock. They kept cattle, sheep and goats, which provided them with milk,
meat, hides and skins.
Fishing. Most of the coastal Bantu who lived on the sea-shore and along river-banks caught
fish to supplement their diet and to boost their trade.
Hunting. This was more so with the Taita and Mijikenda, who hunted elephants and
rhinoceros for ivory, horns, etc.
Trade. The Mijikenda traded with the Akamba, Chagga and Taita as far back as the 18th
century AD. They traded in grains, goats, sheep, cattle, iron tools, beads, clothes, ivory,
skins, rhino horns, etc.
THE HIGHLAND BANTU
from the dispersal at Shungwaya, the Highland (mount Kenya) Bantu moved westwards
and occupied the areas that eventually became their present homeland.
THE AKAMBA
Analyse/discuss migration and settlement of the Akamba into Kenya.
(Trace the origin of the Akamba.)
The Akamba trace their origin to the area around Mount Kilimanjaro, from where their
ancestors migrated to the great bend of the river Tana. They then moved to Taita hills and
finally reached Tsavo west. Around mid 15th century AD, the Akamba followed the eastern
banks of river Athi, from where one group moved across the Athi to Ulu. Due to Oromo
attacks, another group of the Akamba moved south to the Galana river and settled in the
region around Chyulu hills north of Mount Kilimanjaro. Due to drought in the Chyulu area,
some Akamba migrated and settled in the Mbooni hills near Machakos around mid 16th
century.
Soon, due to population increase, some Akamba migrated farther to Iveti, Kilungu, Masaku
and Makueni.
In the course of their migration and settlement, the Akamba met and interacted with the
Agikuyu.
In what ways was Akamba migration and settlement influenced by the environment?
(Explain how and what environmental factors influenced Akamba migration and settlement
into Kenya).
Those in Mbooni region took up agriculture due to soil fertility and ample rainfall in the
area.
The Akamba who moved to drier areas like Chyulu hills became hunters.
Others moved to Kitui and adopted pastoralism and hunting. It is this group that later
participated in the Long Distance trade by providing ivory and slaves to the coastal traders
in thee 19th century.
In what ways did the Akamba interact with the Agikuyu in the course of Akamba
migration and settlement into Kenya?
(Explain interaction between the Akamba and Agikuyu in the course of Akamba migration
and settlement into Kenya.)
They exchanged trade items.
They intermarried.
They adopted cultural aspects like language and dressing.
They raided and fought each other.
They began sporting activities such as wrestling and archery.
THE AMERU
Name the dialects that constitute/make up the Ameru.
The Tigania,
Igembe,
Imenti,
Igoji,
Chuka,
Tharaka,
Muthambi,
Muimbi.
Discuss/analyse migration and settlement of the Ameru into Kenya.
The Ameru claim a place called Mbwa, which is somewhere at the coast (probably Manda
island) as their area of origin. However, historians believe that this tradition of Mbwa fits
very well with Bantu dispersal from Shungwaya.
By late 15th century, ancestors of the Ameru had begun arriving in Meru. Ameru migration
from the coast was mainly due to Oromo pressure.
From Shungwaya, the Ameru moved westwards along the river Tana and pushed into
Igembe and Tigania regions. Around 1400AD, the Ameru and other Mount Kenya groups
were living as hunters and pastoralists.
They moved farther into the interior, crossing river Tana. Some, especially the Tharaka,
finally settled to the east of River Tana as others such as the Chuka, Muimbi, Imenti,
Tigania and Igembe settled in the area west of the River Tana.
The Ameru and Agikuyu are believed to have initially migrated as one group until the 15th
and 16th centuries, when the Agikuyu took their separate direction. The traditions of the
two groups and those of the Aembu and Mbeere seem to confirm this view.
Aembu and mbeere ancestors are believed to have initially migrated with those of the
Ameru and Agikuyu from the Kilimanjaro area before going their separate way.
By 1500, the Mbeere had settled in their present homeland. However, the Aembu crossed
River Thuci and moved north-westwards to the area east of mount Kenya, where they
settled and interacted with the Athi and Gumba, who they later assimilated and from who
they learnt the art of bee keeping, ironworking and circumcision.
THE AGIKUYU
The Agikuyu are the largest population of all the Eastern Bantu. They inhabit the Central
province of Kenya.
Describe two legends or myths that refer to Gikuyu origin.
That which presents the Agikuyu as having originated from Mukurwe Wa Gathanga, where
their ancestors (Gikuyu and his wife mumbi) were settled after God created them.
According to this legend, Gikuyu and mumbi begat nine daughters, who married and
mothered the nine clans of the present Agikuyu.
That which states that the Agikuyu may have descended from one of the four sons of a
Mbeere man, the other three of which may have mothered the Akamba, Athi and Maasai.
Discuss/analyse migration and settlement of the Agikuyu into Kenya.
By 1200AD, The Bantu had already settled in the Central province of Kenya. However, the
original inhabitants of the area were hunter-gatherers, such as the Athi (Dorobo) and the
Gumba. These may have been the remnants of the original inhabitants. The Athi and the
Gumba interacted with the Agikuyu, who later assimilated them.
The Agikuyu may have moved south-west from the coast around 1400AD, probably to
avoid hostile neighbours, such as the Oromo. They also may have moved in search for
cultivable land. They followed the Tana River.
As they moved, some groups broke off and settled in different places. Those who settled in
the east became the Tharaka while those who settled in the south-west became the mbeere.
They had arrived and settled in Mbeere and Chuka from a northern direction by the 16th
century AD. One group proceeded to the confluence of the Tana and Thika rivers by the
beginning of the 18th century. This was the group of Gikuyu ancestors that is associated
with the Mukurwe Wa Gathanga tradition in Murang‟a.
The Agikuyu later moved to the Mweya plains, where they were joined by the Akamba and
the Thagicu. Farther expansion of the Agikuyu led to the displacement of the Athi and
Gumba, some of who were assimilated while others ran into the Nyandarua and Mount
Kenya forests.
In the first half of the 19th century, the Agikuyu once more migrated to Othaya and Aguthi.
They also moved north-eastwards to Mathira and Tetu in Nyeri. They spread and settled in
different parts of Central province and reached as far as Kiambu and Nyandarua. Their
settlement in Kiambu and Nyandarua was interrupted by the coming of the Europeans in the
19th century. However, they were still migrating by early 20th century.
As they migrated, the Agikuyu borrowed ideas from the Cushites, the Maasai, the Gumba
and Athi. The Gumba and Athi were later together known as the Okiek.
The Maasai seriously opposed or resisted Agikuyu invasion. However, the Athi welcomed
and were on good terms with the Agikuyu. The Agikuyu borrowed many economic and
social aspects from the Athi, e.g. ironworking, circumcision, clitoridectomy (female
circumcision) and some age-set features.
Describe the socio-political systems among the Agikuyu during the pre-colonial period.
The Agikuyu at touched a lot of political and social importance to the family and age-set.
Being the smallest social and political unit, every family had its own head. Several families
formed a clan.
Gikuyu country was divided into clans or territorial units, each of which was made up of
several sub-clans (Mbari) with common descent, usually living on the same ridge.
each territorial unit was headed by a council of elders: the “Kiama”, under a senior elder
known as “Muramati” or “Muthamaki” (spokesman). Muramati was highly respected by the
community because of his wisdom and leadership qualities. However, he was not a chief.
Each sub-clan was ruled by a council of elders subordinate to the “Kiama”. This performed
religious, administrative and judicial roles within the sub clan, leaving the “Kiama” to deal
with matters beyond its ability or communal mandate.
At puberty, young boys were initiated through elaborate rites, crowned with circumcision,
during which they were taught the social values, customs and their duties to the community
as warriors.
Boys circumcised at the same time formed an Age-set (Rika). Age-sets formed the military
base for the Gikuyu community, since members of the same age-set considered one another
as brothers, which created a strong political and social bond. Circumcision of girls was also
done every year.
They believed in one God (Ngai), who was all-powerful and in complete control of all life
and who has a definite dwelling place: Mount Kirinyaga (Mount Kenya). Since God was
all-powerful, people prayed to him through priests. priests offered the community‟s prayers
to God through ancestral spirits. Diviners interpreted God‟s messages to the people.
Sacrifices were offered to God in thanksgiving or to ask for his blessings.
The Agikuyu strongly believed in ancestral spirits, who continued to live for many
generations, even after physical death and who were all-powerful as intermediaries between
God and the living.
Medicinemen and diviners were very important in the community. The Medicine man
(“Mundu Mugo”) could cure certain diseases and expel evil spirits. Medical skills were
inherited from close relatives. The Diviner (“Murathi”) could foretell the future.
From the main council of elders, a council of senior elders was formed.
Explain the role/duties of the council of elders among the Agikuyu in the pre-colonial
period.
(What were the functions of the council of elders among the Agikuyu during the pre-colonial
period?)
They were the highest court of appeal.
They solved land and inheritance disputes.
They settled civil and criminal cases.
They presided over religious and other functions.
Identify the economic activities of the Agikuyu during the pre-colonial period.
Agriculture. They grew sorghum, eleusine, millet, root crops and many others for
subsistence.
Animal husbandry. They kept cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, etc.
Trade. They exchanged various trade items with their Maasai, Akamba, Okiek and other
neighbours. Such items included grains and livestock.
Ironworking. From iron smelting, they obtained weapons and farm implements, with which
they were able to settle and farm in their present homeland.
Crafts. They made pots, baskets and other items, which boosted their skills in trade and
other economic activities.
Discuss the effects of Bantu migration and settlement into Kenya.
Increased population in the regions where they settled.
spread of ironworking to other parts of Kenya. The skill reached other communities, such as
the Luo.
Increased intercommunal conflicts. For instance, they fought with the Oromo at the coast,
the Maasai in the Rift Valley and the Luo near Lake Victoria.
More trading activities as the Bantu exchanged iron products with other communities. For
example, Abagusi gave iron products to the Luo in return for baskets.
Increased cultural interaction and exchange. For instance, many Bantu groups assimilated
the Southern Cushites as some Bantu were assimilated by Nilotes.
spread of agricultural practices in Kenya. For example, the Kwavi Maasai of Kenya adopted
cultivation.
Population redistribution. E.g. the Dorobo moved to forested areas.
Displacement of some communities. For instance, Abagusi were displaced by the Luo in the
Kano plains. Some Eastern Cushites were displaced by the Agikuyu from parts of central
Kenya.
Intermarriage. E.g. Abaluhyia intermarried with the Maasai, Kalenjin and Luo.
Exchange of knowledge and skills. Many Bantu adopted the Age-set system and the
practice of circumcision from the southern Cushites.
THE NILOTES
Who are the Nilotes?
The Nilotes are groups of people whose origin is associated with river Nile and who have
similarities in the languages they speak. This is why they are referred to as Nilotic speakers.
They originated from the South-western fringe of the Ethiopian highlands. In Kenya, they
are the second largest language group.
List the classifications of the Nilotic speakers.
(Identify the groups into which the Nilotic speakers are divided.)
The River-lake Nilotes,
The plain Nilotes
The Highland Nilotes.
Name the communities that belong to the River-Lake Nilotes group.
The Kenya Luo, who mainly occupy Luo Nyanza and parts of Western province. They are
sometimes called Southern Luo in order to distinguish them from other River-lake Nilotes
in Uganda and southern Sudan.
The Dinka,
Shiluk,
Bor,
Anwak,
Alur,
Acholi,
Jopaluo,
Padhola,
Nuer,
The Luo of Uganda.
THE KENYA LUO
Analyse/discuss migration and settlement of the Luo into Kenya.
The Luo originated from Bahr-El-Ghazal, area in Southern Sudan, from where they moved
and settled at Pu Bungu in northern Uganda.
They then moved to Pakwach, where they had settled by 1450AD. It was from Pakwach
that they later migrated into Kenya.
By the 15th century, the Luo had begun to move to present-day Kenya.
Though they all claim common ancestry in Ramogi, They migrated and settled in Kenya in
four main groups. These were:
a. Joka Owiny,
b. Joka Jok,
c. Joka Omolo,
d. Abasuba.
Analyse/discuss migration and settlement of the four Luo groups into Kenya.
JOKA JOK
The term “Joka” means “People of”. “Joka Jok” means “people of Jok”.
Jok and his people were the first to move eastwards out of Uganda. They were the first Luo
group to arrive in Kenya.
By the 15th century, they had settled at Ramogi hills of Kadimo in Yimbo in present-day
Siaya district.
Later, two of Jok‟s sons fled to south Nyanza across the Winam gulf to form the
Karachwonyo and Wanjare clans.
From Ramogi hills, Joka Jok also spread to Sakwa, Alego, Asembo and other parts of
Nyanza province. Joka Jok migrated as a result of internal conflicts among other factors.
JOKA OWINY
Owiny and his group may have moved from Uganda in late 16th century AD. They passed
through Mbale, Toro and the Mount Elgon region and eventually settled in Samia.
By early 17th century, they had arrived at Sigoma in Alego, from where they spread to
Uyoma, Kisumu, Nyakach and south Nyanza.
Because Owiny was a great fighter and leader, his people became popularly known as Joka
Ruoth. His name was merged with that of Sigoma (the place where Owiny and his people
first settled in Alego) to form Owiny-Sigoma.
JOKA OMOLO
Joka Omolo came from the northern Bunyoro region in present-day Uganda. They settled
temporarily in Ibanda and Bukoli before moving on to Samia, Ugenya and Gem.
By 1600, they had reached Yimbo, from where they spread to Alego and other areas.
As they migrated, they encountered Abagusi and Abalogoli, whom they pushed out of
Yimbo.
By early 18th century, some Joka family groups had moved across Winam gulf into south
Nyanza.
ABASUBA
Though associated with the Luo, Abasuba were originally Bantu. Most of them migrated
from Buganda in late 18th century.
They intermarried with the Luo and settled in the Gwasi area and on the Lake Victoria
islands of Mfangano and Rusinga. Most of them adopted Luo culture.
Give reasons for the migration of the Luo from Bahr-El-Ghazal in Sudan to Kenya by
1800AD.
Search for fresh grazing land and water for their large herd,, probably due to overstocking
in 2. ii) Natural calamities such as drought, famine, pests, etc.
Family feuds (internal conflicts/rivalry).
Population pressure in their cradle land.
Hostilities and threats as well as attacks from neighbouring communities.
Outbreak of diseases and epidemics, which afflicted both people and livestock.
The spirit of adventure.
Search for better fishing areas.
Explain social organization among the Kenya Luo during the pre-colonial period.
The family was the basic social unit.
Several families formed one clan.
They practised polygamy (marriage of more than one wife).
They were exogamous i.e. they did not allow marriage within the clan.
They were deeply religious and believed in a creator: God, whom they called Nyasaye.
They had sacred shrines and trees where they offered sacrifices to the ancestral spirits.
They had religious leaders, including priests, rain makers and medicine people.
The youth underwent initiation (Ng‟angrwok) at puberty, which involved extraction of six
of their lower front teeth.
They had several ritual ceremonies at birth, naming, marriage and death.
Marriage was celebrated and tokens like cows were exchanged to seal the relationship.
Burial was celebrated through dancing and feasting, in view of the fact that the departed had
joined a new and better world: that of the living dead.
Explain the economic activities of the Kenya Luo during the pre-colonial period.
Keeping livestock. They kept Cattle, sheep, goats, etc. Dogs were kept and used in hunting
while cats were kept as pets. They also kept chicken, ducks and gees.
Fishing. Luo men and women fished in lake Victoria as well as local rivers and streams.
Trade. The Luo traded with Abaluhyia, Abagusi, the Kipsigis, Nandi, Abakuria and other
neighbours. They sold surplus food and animal products as well as earthenware in exchange
for spears, farm implements and soapstone among others.
Hunting. They hunted animals to supplement their diet.
Crafts. They were good in basketry, canoe building, weaving and cloth making.
Ironworking. They practised iron smelting, which they learnt from neighbouring
communities such as the Luhyia and Nandi.
Agriculture. They grew sorghum, beans, sweet potatoes, peas, finger millet, pumpkins,
cassava, a variety of vegetables and a variety of grains.
Discuss Political organization among the Kenya Luo during the pre-colonial period.
They were a decentralized community. They were led by councils of elders.
The lowest level of political structure was the family head, referred to as Jadwong‟.
several families who traced their descent to a common ancestor formed one clan.
Within the clan was a council of elders (Doho), who settled disputes.
Under the Doho were lineage councils (Buch Dho‟OT).
Clans were grouped to form larger territorial units called Gweng‟ (in singular) or Gwenge
(in plural).
Each Gweng‟ was self governing, with its authority in the hands of a council of elders that
comprised all clan heads and outstanding elders from foreign lineages.
When grouped together, Gwenge formed Oganda, which was a kind of sub tribe governed
by Buch Piny, which was a council that comprised the Heads of the different Gwenge,
outstanding diviners, medicine men, healers, rainmakers and warriors. Buch Piny was
chaired by the Chief (Ruoth). It dealt with issues such as boundary disputes, external
invasions and interclan conflicts.
Within the Buch Piny was a war leader called Osumba Mrwayi, who led a group of
warriors known as Thuondi (bulls), who defended the community and conducted raids.
Luo expansion continued up to the colonial period, when they were stopped by European
colonialists in the 19th century.
Explain the role/functions of the council of elders among the Kenya Luo during the precolonial
period.
(What were the duties of the council of elders among the Kenya Luo during the pre-colonial
period?)
Administration of justice.
Serving as the final court of appeal in Gweng‟ matters.
presiding over religious ceremonies.
Declaration of war or negotiation of peace.
Admission or expulsion of strangers.
Explain the consequences/impact/results of the migration and settlement of the Luo in
Kenya by 1750AD.
Increased population in the region.
Increased civil and intercommunal warfare.
displacement of the Western Bantu e.g. Abaluhyia and Abakuria as well as other
communities such as the Maasai.
Assimilation of some Luhyia and other groups in the region.
Increased trading activities. The Luo exchanged livestock for the items they did not have.
Intermarriage due to interaction between the Luo and other groups.
Luo adoption of agriculture alongside pastoralism as a result of their contacts with the
Bantu farming communities.
redistribution of populations as some communities left while others came into the region.
THE HIGHLAND NILOTES
Identify two main classifications of the Highland Nilotes.
(Into what two main groups are the Highland Nilotes divided?)
ii. The Kalenjin.
iii. The Jie.
Name the communities that belong to each of the two main Highland Nilotic groups.
The Kalenjin consist of:
Tugen,
Keio,
Marakwet,
Nandi,
Kipsigis,
Sabaot,
Pokot,
Elgon.
The Jie comprise:
The Karamojong,
Kumam,
Iteso,
Turkana,
The Jie themselves.
Analyse/discuss migration and settlement of the Highland Nilotes into Kenya. (Explain
the origin of the Highland Nilotes and how they migrated and settled into Kenya.)
Highland Nilotes were pastoralists. Their ancestors may first have lived in Karamoja before
they split into various groups.
The Highland Nilotes may have been the earliest Nilotic speakers in Kenya. They must
have occupied most of western Kenya, because their neighbours speak a lot about them.
They are mentioned in tales told of their warlike nature, e.g. the Luo story of Lwanda
Magere (a strong Luo warrior) who was eventually betrayed by a Nandi lady in order for
the Nandi to gain victory over the Luo.
Kalenjin traditions indicate that their original homeland lay at a place to the north-western
part of Kenya, between Sudan and Ethiopia, from where the highland Nilotes may have
began migrating during the last millennium. The Dadog of Tanzania and the pioneer
Kalenjin emigrants in Kenya such as the Sirikwa may have occupied the Rift Valley by
700AD.
Highland Nilotic remnants therefore spread towards the western mount Elgon highlands,
next to the Kenya-Uganda border. These became the ancestors of the Kalenjin speakers we
have today.
The Kalenjin first lived as a single community on mount Kamalinga to the north-west of the
lake Turkana region. In the 17th century, they began expanding southwards to the slopes of
Mount Elgon, where some of them remained as others moved on. The Bok, Bongomek and
Kony are among those that remained. Indeed, it was from the Kalenjin that the Bantu got
some cultural practices, such as circumcision.
By early 17th century, the Kalenjin had inhabited Nandi, Aldai, Kamasiya, Elgon, etc. As
pastoralists, they roamed and grazed in their new homeland, which led to intermarriage
between them and the Uasingishu, the Maasai, the Sirikwa, etc.
Analyse/discuss migration and settlement of the Iteso, Karamojong, Turkana, Nandi and
Kipsigis into Kenya.
THE ITESO
The Iteso began migrating from Karamoja, in late 17th century and early 18th century.
Between 1652-1731, they arrived at Kumi and Soroti, from where they spread towards
mount Elgon.
By the 19th century, the Iteso had settled In Western Kenya, where they interacted with the
Babukusu and Bagisu through intermarriage, trade, agriculture, keeping livestock,
intertribal wars, etc.
It was as a result of such interaction that the Iteso adopted agriculture in addition to
pastoralism. They grew crops such as sweet potatoes, groundnuts, cassava and varieties of
vegetables. This enabled the Iteso to be more settled.
THE KARAMOJONG AND TURKANA
These migrated southwards while the Jie took a northward direction. The Karamojong
assimilated some Iteso. The Turkana on the other hand inhabited the lake Turkana area.
THE NANDI
The Nandi may have moved from the mount Elgon region between 1700-1800AD.
In the last half of the 19th century, they emerged as one of the strongest groups in Western
Kenya. For instance, apart from other warfare, they conducted raids for livestock against
Abaluhyia, the Luo and even the Uasingishu Maasai.
The rise of the Nandi to power was facilitated by the decline of the Maasai, who were
weakened by civil wars among other calamities.
By the end of the 19th century, the Nandi had dominated almost all the communities in the
rift valley apart from the Kipsigis, who served as their allies. Nandi power only declined
when colonial rule was imposed on Kenya. But even then, the Nandi resisted colonial
intrusion for six years.
THE KIPSIGIS
The Nandi and the Kipsigis may have separated from other Kalenjin groups such as the
Bok, Bongomek and the Tugen in the mount Elgon area around 1600AD. They moved
south-east to Teo near lake Baringo.
Due to Maasai hostility, they moved westwards to Tambach, where they stayed for a long
period.
From Tambach, they went farther south to Rongai near Nakuru.
Drought and Maasai raids are among the factors that caused Nandi separation from the
Kipsigis.
From Rongai, the Kipsigis moved south to Kericho while the Nandi moved westwards to
Aldai. This was probably during the second half of the 18th century.
Settlement of the Kipsigis at Kipsigis Hill marked the establishment of a strong community.
They assimilated the groups that they found at Kipsigis hill, such as the Sirikwa, some
Maasai and some Gusi.
Explain why the Highland Nilotes migrated into Kenya.
(What were the reasons for Highland Nilote migration into Kenya? (Explain/discuss the
factors that led to migration of the Highland Nilotes into Kenya).)
Search for cultivable land as well as pasture and water for their livestock.
Drought, famine and other natural calamities.
Rapid population increase.
Diseases and epidemics, which afflicted both people and livestock.
Internal conflicts and rivalries. For instance, the Karamojong and Turkana exerted pressure
on other groups, such as the Iteso.
Pressure or attacks from hostile neighbouring communities.
Adventure and desire for loot and plunder.
Explain the socio-political and economic organization of the Highland Nilotes during the
pre-colonial period.
Socio-political and economic organization of the Highland Nilotes is best illustrated by the
Kalenjin as follows:
SOCIAL & POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into semi-independent territorial units known as Bororiet (borosiek in
plural).
Each Bororiet was controlled by a council of elders (Kok), which was chosen to their
position because of their wisdom and military skill.
At puberty, boys and girls were initiated and taught the values and customs of the
community, although most of the training at initiation, which culminated in circumcision,
was centred on boys, who were seen as future defenders of the community.
After circumcision, boys of the same age group entered a named age-set. There were up to
seven or eight Age-set names.
Age-sets were formed on territorial basis in order to discourage interclan disputes or
conflicts between families. The aim here was to create a unified strong community.
The Saget Ap Eito ceremony was used as a means of maintaining the age-Set system by
cycling Age-Set names. This ceremony marked the official hand-over of power from one
age-set to the other. It was performed after every 10-15 years. It took 50-100 years to go
through a cycle of age-set names. Names, years and number of age-sets varied from one
region to another.
After initiation, boys also qualified to join the junior Warrior rank in the Bororiet as a
permanent warrior cadre to defend the community and to conquer new lands.
The Kalenjin believe in the existence of one supreme God (Asis), to who they directed all
warship, prayers and petitions.
Medicinemen, rainmakers, diviners, prophets and prophetesses were highly respected in the
community.
By the middle of the 19th century, the office of the Orkoiyot emerged as the central political
and religious authority among the Nandi.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Mixed farming. The Kalenjin were basically pastoralists. They kept cattle, sheep and goats.
later, they adopted agriculture and grew Eleusine, millet, sorghum, etc.
Ironworking. In this, both men and women participated in order to produce weapons, farm
implements and other equipment.
Trade. The Kalenjin traded with Abaluhyia, the Maasai, Luo and other neighbours, to whom
they sold food, animal and iron products.
Crafts. They made pots, baskets, hunting traps, etc. They also were good in leatherwork.
Hunting and gathering. Since land inhabited by the Kalenjin was mostly fertile, they
undertook hunting and gathering as an extra leisure time and adventurous economic activity
to intensify their vigilance and to keep them alert and firmly in control of their territory
through impromptu patrols apart from supplementing their diet. Dogs, bows, arrows, traps
and spears were used in hunting and catching animals.
Outline Nandi Age-Set names.
Maina,
Chuma,
Sawe,
Korongoro,
Kipkoimet,
Kaplelach,
Kimnyige,
Nyongi.
Explain the role/functions of the council of elders among the Highland Nilotes during the
pre-colonial period.
(What were the responsibilities/duties of the council of elders among the Highland Nilotes
during the pre-colonial period?)
They maintained law and order.
They settled major disputes in the community.
They made important observations and decisions on communal matters. For instance, they
advised warriors on how or when to launch raids or attacks on their neighbouring or other
communities.
They defined grazing and habitable land for various clans and groups to avoid internal
rivalry or hostility.
They organized and presided over cultural practices, such as initiation.
They served as the final court of appeal in the community.
Explain the role/functions of the Orkoiyot among the Nandi during the pre-colonial
period.
He was both the political and religious leader of the community.
He presided over religious functions, such as sacrifices.
He advised elders on community affairs.
He advised and blessed warriors before they went to war.
He arbitrated (settled) disputes.
He was a Seer, rain maker and chief medicine man in the community.
What were the effects of migration and settlement of the Highland Nilotes into Kenya?
(Explain the consequences/impact/results of migration and settlement of the Highland Nilotes
into Kenya.)
Increased intercommunal conflicts in the region.
Cultural exchange i.e. adoption of Bantu culture by some Kalenjin groups and vice versa.
For instance, the Terik borrowed many Bantu customs and a lot of vocabulary. The Bantu
on the other hand borrowed the idea of circumcision from the Kalenjin and other highland
Nilotic groups.
Intermarriage with other groups in the region, e.g. Abagusi and the Luo.
Increased trading activities.
Displacement of people, especially those they encountered and subdued, such as Abagusi
and the Kwavi Maasai.
THE PLAIN NILOTES
Name the communities that belong to the Plain Nilotes.
The Maasai,
Samburu,
Iteso,
Turkana,
Njemps.
While some historical accounts categorise the Teso and the Turkana with the Plain Nilotes,
others include them among the Highland Nilotes.
Identify the factors that led to migration and settlement of the plain Nilotes into Kenya.
(What were the reasons for migration and settlement of the Plain Nilotes into Kenya?)
Diseases and epidemics, which afflicted both people and livestock.
Internal feuds i.e. raids and counter raids against each other.
Pressure or hostility from neighbouring and other communities.
The spirit of adventure i.e. desire to experience life in a new land.
population pressure.
natural calamities such as drought, famine, etc.
Search for cultivable land (particularly the Kwavi Maasai).
Their nomadic lifestyle, due to which they kept moving from place to place (in search of
pasture and water) without a definite settlement or home.
Analyse/discuss the migration and settlement of the Maasai into Kenya. (Trace/explain the
origin of the Maasai.)
The Maasai and the original Kalenjin speakers first lived in the northern Lake Turkana area.
They may have entered east Africa around 1000AD. Being nomadic pastoralists, they
probably migrated mainly due to the need for fresh grazing land and water for their large
herd.
In spite of their close association with the original Kalenjin speakers in the Northern Lake
Turkana region and elsewhere, the Maasai may have developed separately, as shown by the
different languages and cultures among and between them and their previous associates.
Around 1500AD, the Maasai began to move within the area between mount Elgon and
mount Kamalinga and reached the Uasingishu plateau.
Around 1700AD, they went southwards and established themselves in the area previously
occupied by the Kalenjin, who had migrated ahead of them. They assimilated some of the
people they conquered, such as the Sirikwa.
By 1800, the Maasai had occupied much of the Central Kenya plains and north-central
Tanzania. By that time, they were grazing their livestock throughout east Africa, especially
in the Rift valley. They met and waged war against communities such as the Kalenjin,
Akamba and Abagusi. They were very fierce warriors and could not allow a stranger into
their land.
Because of their nomadic lifestyle, they were not able to form a kingdom.
Towards 1750, the Maasai community were weakened by internal rivalry, among other
problems.
British colonization of Kenya at the end of the 19th century brought Maasai power to an end
Describe two main groups into which the Maasai are divided.
ii. The Purko (Ilmaasai), who are strictly pastoralists.
iii. The Iloikop (Kwavi) Maasai, who practise mixed farming.
Explain the problems experienced by the Maasai towards 1750AD.
(Explain the factors that weakened the Maasai towards mid 18th century.)
Natural disasters, especially drought and famine.
Diseases such as Small-pox, cholera, Pleura-Pneumonia and Rinderpest, which killed large
numbers of people and livestock.
A series of civil wars between the Iloikop and Ilmaasai, especially after the death of Laibon
Mbatian, when his two sons Lenana and Sendeyo were involved in a succession dispute.
Frequent wars between the Maasai and the neighbouring communities such as the Agikuyu
and the Nandi.
Rise of the Nandi, who expanded their power over the already weak Maasai.
British rule. British colonization of Kenya at the end of the 19th century brought Maasai
power to an end.
2. Explain the Socio-political and economic organization of the Maasai during the pre-colonial
period.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
They were divided into two groups, i.e. the Pastoral Purko Maasai and the agricultural
Kwavi Maasai.
They were divided into five clans.
They circumcised both boys and girls at puberty, upon which the initiates entered an ageset.
he initiated young men joined the warrior class: the Moran. The Moran lived in special
Manyattas and were not allowed to marry until they became junior elders.
They had diviners and medicine people.
By the 19th century, the Purko Maasai had created the office of the Oloibon (ritual leader),
who officiated at religious ceremonies.
They believed in the existence of and worshipped one God (Enkai).
Among the most important ceremonies was the Eunto, which marked the graduation of the
Morans into junior elders.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
The largest political unit was the tribal section, regarded as the geographical nation.
The Age-set spokesmen handled affairs involving interclan cooperation.
Each clan was administered by a council of elders chosen because of their outstanding
military performance and because of their senior position in the community.
The Morans defended the community and conducted raids.
A military leader led the warriors during war.
Junior elders dealt with day to day issues and maintained peace.
Senior elders handled the difficult judicial and political decisions.
By the end of the 19th century, the Oloibon (religious leader) had acquired political power.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Gathering of vegetables, roots and wild fruits.
Nomadic pastoralism, keeping cattle, sheep and goats.
Trade with neighbouring communities e.g. the Akamba, Agikuyu and Luo.
Crafts, e.g. making Baskets and ornaments, etc.
Iron smelting, which enabled them to make spears, mainly for defence purposes.
Explain the role/functions of the council of elders among the Maasai during the pre -
colonial period.
They administered justice by listening to and solving serious cases.
They were the final court of appeal.
They advised warriors on raiding techniques. Indeed, they organized some raids.
They headed and presided over religious and other ceremonies.
They were in charge of sharing out or dividing war booty (loot), which largely comprised
livestock.
What were the effects/results of migration and settlement of the Plain Nilotes into
Kenya?
(Discuss the impact of migration and settlement of the Plain Nilotes into Kenya.)
Displacement of the communities they came into contact with. For instance, as they
expanded during the 18th century, they subdued the Nandi in the north-west.
Assimilation of some Southern Cushites.
Adoption of some cultural practices from the Southern Cushites. For instance, they adopted
the custom of the Age-set System and circumcision, in addition to adopting some Kalenjin
vocabulary.
Communities like the Nandi were influenced by the Maasai to adopt the institution of
Prophet or Diviner from the institution of Laibon among the Maasai.
Acquisition of the practice of farming by a section of the Maasai from their agricultural
neighbours in the Rift Valley. For instance, the Iloikop (Kwavi) Maasai became mixed
farmers.
Trade, which increased and grew, particularly with their neighbours, such as the Akamba
and Agikuyu.
Intermarriage with neighbouring communities, such as the Akamba, Agikuyu and even the
Kalenjin, with who they interacted, even through fighting.
Change of fighting tactics. Other groups in Kenya were influenced by Maasai bravery and
fierce nature.
Increased warfare, and conflicts as communities fought to control resources.
Increase of populations.
Explain how Kenyan communities interacted during the pre-colonial period.
(Analyse/discuss intercommunal interaction in Kenya during the pre-colonial period.)
In pre-colonial Kenya, communities mainly interacted in the following ways.
Intermarriage.
Trade.
Warfare.
Linguistic Assimilation.
Cultural Assimilation.
Sporting activities, e.g. wrestling and bull fighting.
CHAPTER 6
CONTACTS BETWEEN THE EAST
AFRICAN COAST AND THE OUTSIDE
WORLD
Describe the sources of Historical information about the East African coast before the
7
th century AD.
The Greco-Roman documentary, which only makes an indirect reference to the east
African coast before the establishment of international contact since it is a product of
international trade.
The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea a book written about 120AD by a Greek commercial
agent in Egypt. This document describes the trade between the African and foreign
merchants at the coast.
The writing by Claudius Ptolemy (a Greek scholar) in the 2nd century AD, which
entailed geography and describes commercial activities at the coast. Ptolemy attempted to
draw the first map of Africa.
Documents by Arab merchants such as Ibn Batuta and Al-Masudi as well as some
Swahili histories and chronicles such as the history of Pate, Lamu, Mombasa and Kilwa.
The existing archaeological evidence in east Africa, which include the remains of
pottery, iron tools, beads, coins and others that prove the presence of international trade
between the coast and the outside world.
The Christian Topography by Cosmos Indico-Pletustes, which was written in the first
half of the 6th century AD and supports Persian domination of Indian Ocean Trade.
Oral traditions, which were used and relied on for a long time, particularly by
communities that lacked the skill of writing.
Explain how/why the east African coast has been subjected to a long history of
commercial contact, cultural influence and population movements to and from
lands across the Indian Ocean.
The coast was easily accessible from the sea, which eased contact with the outside
world.
Development of a suitable marine technology (boat making), which boosted voyages.
Harnessing of the winds and currents of the Indian Ocean, by which traders knew when
to travel to and from the coast.
Describe the earliest visitors to the east African coast.
The Greeks, who were attracted to the trade in ivory.
The Romans, who increased demand for oriental (eastern Asian) commodities in the
Mediterranean region and were determined to break Arab monopoly over oriental trade.
They gave wine, various kinds of glass and wheat to the coastal people in return for
ivory, slaves and rhinoceros horns.
The Chinese, whose coins and pottery have been found at several places at the coast.
They came for gold, ivory, leopard skins, tortoise shells and rhinoceros horns.
The Persians, who together with the Arabs, settled down and started towns such as
Lamu, Mombasa and Zanzibar. They were later driven away by the Arabs who occupied
all the coastal towns.
The Arabs, whose settlement at the coast affected the lives of the inhabitants they found
in many ways, which makes them the most important of all visitors at the east African
coast.
Explain why the Arabs were the most influential of all early visitors to the east
African coast.
They were keen and very skillful in trade and sailing.
They were more accustomed to the Monsoon winds than any other people.
They were good navigators.
The ports of southern Arabia were good calling places on the journey between the East
and the West.
The deep harbours at the east African coast were ideal for their ships to anchor, refuel
and get them supplies.
To the east African coast
Give reasons for the coming of the Arabs to the East African coast.
To trade and control commercial activities along the east African coast.
Some came as refugees fleeing religious and political persecutions in Arabia.
They came to spread their religion Islam.
To explore the east African coast.
To establish settlements along the east African coast.
Apart from Arabia, identify other places that early visitors to the east African coast
came from.
Egypt,
Syria,
India,
Srilanka,
Maldive islands,
Spice Islands,
Greece,
China,
Persia,
Italy,
Burma,
Thailand.
State the factors that enabled the Arabs to come to the east African coast.
The Monsoon winds, which helped them sail.
Accessibility to the coast by sea.
Availability of Dhows and sailing ships.
Funds to finance trade across the sea.
Existence of skilled personnel who could sail the ships across the water over long
distances.
TRADE BETWEEN THE EAST African COAST AND THE OUTSIDE WRLD
Explain the factors that led to development of trade between the east African coast
and the outside world.
Availability of trade items, which were in high demand.
Uneven distribution of resources. For instance, some had ivory, others had cotton and
some others had none.
Enterprising merchants in both the foreign lands and the east African coast. These
promoted trade links.
Existence of local trade even before the foreign merchants came to the east African
coast, which provided a base for the development of Indian Ocean trade.
Accessibility of the east African coast by sea.
The Monsoon winds, which facilitated vessel movement to and from the coast.
Peace and political stability at the east African coast in addition to security given by the
Sultans to traders, particularly Arab traders.
Natural harbours along the coast, which ensured safe docking of vessels for fuelling
and off-loading supplies.
Advancement of the ship building industry in Europe.
Credit facilities given by Indian Banyans, which made many more people to join the
trade.
Describe the organization of trade between the east African coast and the outside
world.
Indian Ocean trade attracted the Romans, Greeks, Persians, Arabs, etc. Other traders
came from Burma, Thailand, Maldive islands and Spice Islands.
A variety of imports and exports were exchanged.
Foreign traders‟ dhows and ships depended on the Monsoon winds that blew their
vessels to and from the east African coast.
Barter system was used in initial stages but coins were later used as a medium of
exchange.
Middlemen in the trade were the Arabs and the Swahili, who organized caravans to the
interior, where they acquired and sold goods.
Trade was financed by the Arabs. Later, the Indian Banyans (money lenders) provided
capital.
The traders were given protection by the Sultan of Zanzibar.
As trade developed, foreign traders settled along the east African coast, leading to
establishment of coastal towns such as Lamu, Malindi and Mombasa among others.
Though exports from the east African coast were many, the major ones were gold, ivory
and slaves. Ivory was used in Asia and Europe for making bangles, bracelets, Piano keys
and decorations. Slaves were in great demand in Arabia and India, where they served as
domestic servants, labourers and soldiers. Gold from Zimbabwe was used in making
ornaments.
Identify the goods that were exchanged in trade between the east African coast and the
outside world.
EXPORTS
Gold,
Ivory,
Leopard skins,
Gum,
Copra,
Tortoise shells,
Mangrove poles,
Slaves,
Palm oil,
Rhinoceros horns,
Bees wax,
Ostrich feathers,
Copal,
Copper,
Iron.
IMPORTS
Clothes,
Beads,
Glassware,
Bowels,
Swords,
Stone jars,
Spices,
Cowrie shells,
Beakers,
Tin pans,
Tools,
Pots,
Grains,
Sugar,
Porcelain bowels,
Daggers,
Silk,
Frankincense.
Myrrh.
Explain the impact of Indian Ocean trade on the people of east Africa.
Emergence and growth of towns like Pemba, Mombasa, Lamu, Zanzibar and Kilwa.
Establishment of trade caravan routes, which were later upgraded to roads by the
colonialists.
Emergence of the Swahili people and culture as Muslim traders and other foreigners
intermarried with local Bantu communities.
Exposure of the east African coast to foreigners, who later colonized the region.
Emergence of Kiswahili as a new language of the coastal people.
Establishment of international ties as the east African coast was linked to the outside
world.
Spread of Islamic culture along the coastal region, leading to new construction,
dressing and eating styles.
Introduction of currency as a means of exchange in place of the Barter system of trade.
Introduction of Islamic law (Sharia).
Underdevelopment of the hinterland due to slave trade, since able bodied people were
captured, leaving behind the aged, children and the weak, who could not till the land and
were subjected to starvation and death.
Decline of the population and industries of the hinterland as more and more people
were sold into slavery.
Introduction of cloth, cowrie shells, spices and new crops like rice, wheat, millet,
cloves, vegetables and fruits such as bananas and oranges along the east African coast.
Increased demand for ivory and consequent destruction of wildlife, especially the
elephant and the rhinoceros.
Rise of a class of rich merchants, who rose to positions of leadership in the interior,
exhibiting a high standard of living E.G. Chief Kivoi of the Akamba.
Importation of foreign goods like cloth from India and iron tools from Asia and Europe,
which became popular with Africans.
The east African coast and interior were opened to the outside world, which later led to
colonization of the region by the British.
THE COMING OF THE PORTUGUESE
Explain how the Portuguese came to the east African coast.
(Explain the coming of the Portuguese to the east African coast).
The Portuguese invaded the east African coast in 1498, when the Turks, through the
then Ottoman empire occupied most of the middle east and blocked overland routes from
Europe to India. It was therefore very difficult and expensive for Europeans to acquire
gold, silk and spices from Asia.
With the invention of new ships by the PORTUGUESE, THE Europeans found and
used new sea routes to the far east. For instance, in 1497, Vasco Da Gamma left Portugal
with three ships on an exploration expedition to find a sea route to India.
The people of east Africa were not aware of the presence of Europeans across the
Indian Ocean until the coming of the Portuguese in 1498 when Vasco Da Gamma and his
team arrived at the east African coast. The Portuguese were out to control the ports and
the sea-way to secure their use of the lucrative coastal trade.
Give reasons for the coming of the Portuguese to the east African coast.
(Explain the factors that facilitated/led to the coming of the Portuguese to the East African
Coast).
To establish and obtain a trading empire in the East and trade-goods from China, India
and east Africa.
To carry Christianity to the east African coast to convert Muslim and other nonChristian
groups.
Their discovery of the sea route to India due to their experience in exploration and
voyages.
To stop the Turks and Arabs from rivaling them in east African trade.
To use the east African coast (which was strategically important) as a base for their
trading and navy ships, where they would get fresh supply of food and water.
To explore and satisfy their love for adventure, given their advanced ship building
technology.
To counter the growing Islamic influence and to avenge earlier defeat by the Muslims,
who had occupied the Iberian peninsular and Spain, forcing them to convert to Islam.
To form an antimuslim alliance with Presta John: a Christian legendary ruler in
Ethiopia.
To colonize the east African coast in order to protect their trading interests.
Identify the Portuguese leaders that led expeditions in the conquest of the east African
coast. (Describe the steps in which the Portuguese conquered the east African coast.
Describe the steps in which the Portuguese conquered the east African coast.
(Analyse/explain the process of Portuguese conquest of the east African coast.)
In 1498, Vasco Da Gamma sailed to the east African coast and was warmly received in
Mozambique and Malindi, though he met a hostile reception in Mombasa. At Malindi,
he was given a Gujerati pilot: Ahmed Ibn Majid, who successfully guided him and his
companions to India.
In 1499, Vasco Da Gamma returned to Portugal with news of his successful voyage to
India, the lucrative trade between the far east and the east African coast as well as the
disunity among coastal towns of east Africa. The King of Portugal decided to conquer the
east African coast in order to firmly monopolize and control the trade.
In 1500, Pedro Alvares Cabral led an expedition aimed at capturing Sofala, but he
failed.
In 1502, Vasco Da Gamma led an expedition against Kilwa, which he successfully
conquered.
In 1503, Ruy Laurenco Ravasco was sent to Zanzibar, which he defeated and forced to
send tribute to the king of Portugal.
In 1505, King Emanuel the Fortunate sent a fleet of twenty ships with an expedition of
1500 men under Francisco De‟almeida to Sofala, Kilwa and Mombasa, which they
successfully conquered.
Between 1506-1507, Tristao Da Cunha attacked Oja, Brava, Pate, Sokotra and Lamu.
In 1509, the islands of Mafia, Pemba and Zanzibar were brought under Portuguese rule.
With this, the entire coast was brought under Portuguese control.
Between 1585-1588, a rebellion broke out following the arrival of Amir Ali Bey: a
Turkish captain, who was sent as an envoy of the Sultan of Turkey to free the coastal
towns from the Portuguese. The Portuguese attacked the towns of Pate, Siu and Pemba as
well as Manda. They completely destroyed Manda and imposed heavy fines on the other
three.
In 1589, the Portuguese established their headquarters in Mombasa, where they built
fort Jesus in 1593.
Explain why the Portuguese built Fort Jesus.
The fort was used as a watchtower for spotting and preparing to face the enemy.
It served as a military base, offering food, security and protection.
It was used as an armament deport.
It at times served as a prison for war and other captives.
Portuguese monopoly was soon challenged by the Dutch, the British and the French,
but, using Fort Jesus and their wide naval expertise, the Portuguese managed to keep
them off the east African coast.
The building of Fort Jesus facilitated Portuguese conquest of Hormuz, which enabled
the Portuguese to control sea traffic in the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian
sea.
Explain why the Portuguese were able to conquer the east African coast by the 18th
century.
(Explain the factors that facilitated/led to Portuguese conquest of the east African coast by
the 18th century).
Ruthlessness and cruelty with which Portugal attacked her enemies.
Superiority of Portuguese arms such as Caravells, Carracks and hand guns.
Weakness of Turkish and Persian navies in the Indian ocean, which thwarted the
coastal towns‟ hope for assistance against the Portuguese.
Good military training and tactics on the Portuguese side unlike the disorganized and
disunited coastal communities.
Portuguese reinforcement from their headquarters in Goa: India.
Rivalry and steef competition among the coastal towns, which enabled the Portuguese
to attack and conquer them one by one.
The Portuguese organized surprise attacks and fought with determination.
Portuguese alliance with some local people E.G. those of Malindi, Pemba and Zanzibar,
who assisted them in their conquest activities.
Portuguese use of harbours as bases for their ships and troops, which strengthened their
campaigns.
Failure of some communities to resist the Portuguese.
Analyse Portuguese rule at the east African coast.
(Discuss/describe Portuguese rule at the east African coast.)
In 1507, the Portuguese made Mozambique their headquarters and put it under a
captain answerable to the Portuguese viceroy stationed at Goa in southern India.
Later, the Portuguese divided the east African coast into two and appointed another
captain, whom they stationed at Mombasa. He too was answerable to the Portuguese
viceroy at Goa in southern India.
The Portuguese applied the “Divide and rule” policy by setting one town against
another. For instance, they allied with Malindi against Mombasa.
By constructing Fort Jesus, they strengthened their military might and effectively
established their control over the coastal region.
Portuguese rule was harsh and cruel. The Portuguese isolated themselves from people
and behaved as though they were of a superior religion and race. They lived in their own
settlements and had their own churches. They were only interested in exploiting the gold
trade.
Due to poor interaction, the Portuguese failed to foster good relations with the people
of the east African coast. As a result, Portuguese rule at the east African coast was
rejected and fiercely resisted.
Explain the role/duties of Portuguese captains stationed in Mozambique and
Mombasa.
They collected tribute from the local rulers.
They imposed customs duties on imports and exports.
They were in charge of putting down resistance and rebellions.
They supervised and monitored ruling families in the city states.
Explain the impact/consequences of Portuguese rule on the east African coast.
(What were the effects/results of Portuguese rule at the east African coast?)
Disruption of trade between the coast and Persia, Arabia and India, for the
Portuguese were both greedy and corrupt.
Subjection of people to heavy taxation and brutality, causing decline and often
disintegration of coastal towns. For instance, Gedi was burnt down, Kilwa was destroyed
while Mombasa was looted.
Introduction of new crops such as maize, potatoes, pineapples and guavas.
Attempts to spread Christianity.
Addition of some Portuguese words to Kiswahili. E.G. The Kiswahili word for wine is
“Mvinyo”, got from a Portuguese word: “Vinho”.
Construction/building of Fort Jesus and the Vasco Da Gamma pillar, which became
and still are tourist attraction sites to this day.
Loss of life and destruction of property due to continuous Portuguese raids.
Good relations between the east African coast and India.
European colonization of the region by mid 19th century.
Hindrance to the development of commerce and agriculture at the coast.
African acquisition of the practice of using animal waste as fertilizer.
Constant uprisings and revolts by the local people.
State the factors that led to the decline of Portuguese rule at the east African coast.
(Explain why Portuguese rule at the east African coast collapsed).
Portuguese officials were inefficient and corrupt as they amassed personal wealth
instead of effectively administering the area.
Portugal failed to establish a systematic form of government and did not attempt to
administer the interior.
Revenue from gold declined since traders shifted away from the Portugueseadministered
areas, causing failure of the Portuguese in meeting the expenses of
administering their possessions on the east African coast.
Constant rebellions by the coastal peoples, particularly those of Mombasa, which
weakened the Portuguese further.
Portugal was a small country with a small population, unable to raise a large army and
personnel to administer the area.
Portugal could not get reinforcements on good time for protection of her possessions
since she was too far from the east African coast.
Annexation of Portugal by Spain between 1590-1640, which led to neglect of
Portuguese interests at the east African coast up to when Portugal regained her
independence.
Invasion of the east African coast by Muslim nations such as Turkey and Oman among
others.
Attack in 1588 by the Zimba: a man-eater community from Mozambique.
Tropical diseases such as Malaria.
Appearance of the English, Dutch and French in the Indian Ocean, who brought
commercial efficiency and superior skills in naval warfare, by which they out competed
and undermined Portuguese power along the east African coast.
The 1696 Omani siege on fort Jesus, which lasted for 33 months and caused suffering
and death to most of the Portuguese. The fall of Fort Jesus marked the end of Portuguese
rule over the region north of the river Ruvuma.
ESTABLISHMENT OF OMAN RULE
AT THE EAST AFRICAN COAST
Describe the establishment of Oman rule along the east African coast.
(Explain how Oman rule was established along the east African coast.)
From the expulsion of the Portuguese in 1698, the east African coast came under
Oman rule.
At first, Oman rule over the east African coast was enforced through local families such
as the Mazrui in Mombasa and the Nabahan in Lamu. But the Mazrui wanted to be
independent.
The Mazrui eventually established themselves as independent rulers of Mombasa,
extending their rule to Malindi, Pate and Pemba.
In the 19th century, their possessions extended from Malindi in the north to Pangani in
the south. The Mazrui allied with Mijikenda communities around Mombasa, with whose
help they attacked and conquered Lamu among other places.
The Mazrui were eventually tricked into submission by Khalid” a son of Seyid Said, the
King of Oman, who deported them from Mombasa and brought the East African coast
under full Oman
Give reasons why the Oman Arabs were unable to control the east African coast after
the defeat of the Portuguese.
Civil wars in Oman.
Rebellion by coastal towns.
Threats of Persian invasion.
SEYID SAID
Why did Seyid Said transfer his capital (operational base) from Muscat to Zanzibar
in 1840?
Zanzibar supported his effort to capture Mombasa.
Zanzibar was good and pleasant, with a good climate, unlike Muscat, which was hot
and dry.
Zanzibar had good (deep-water) harbours in which ships could anchor. Her water was
also clean.
He wanted to control Indian Ocean trade and the towns of the east African coast.
Zanzibar‟s position was convenient for trade with the mainland and with Mombasa.
Zanzibar‟s good climate and fertile soil favoured cultivation of cloves, which were used
as spices.
Being an island, Zanzibar assured the Oman Arabs of protection.
Explain Seyid Said’s influence on trade along the east African coast.
Since Seyid Said controlled the whole of the coast, he developed trade links with the
Kenyan interior, in which he involved the Akamba and Mijikenda.
Slaves, ivory and cloves were the major exports from east Africa. Caravans were sent
into the interior to collect slaves and ivory.
Under Seyid Said‟s influence, Zanzibar became the commercial centre for the entire
east African coast. Imports included beads, guns, ammunition and hardware.
Analyse/explain Plantation agriculture as practiced along the east African coast by
1840.
Plantation agriculture was the major cause of increased slave trade in east Africa. By
1840, slaves were heavily used in clove plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba. The slaves
had to provide for both themselves and their masters.
In early 19th century, the Arabs and the Swahili started growing grains like semeseme
and millet. Slaves spent long working hours on such plantations under the supervision of
slave overseers.
Plantation slavery was intensively practiced around Malindi, where there were large
tracts of farmland. In Mombasa, cultivation of coconuts was preferred as farms there
were smaller. Coconuts required less rain while their yields were higher.
The Mijikenda traded with the Arabs in ivory, cattle and grains. Arabs prevented the
Mijikenda from owning the rich coastal farmland.
Slaves often tried to escape from plantations due to their bad working conditions. They
were grouped into different classes and were not equal.
Those slaves that ran away were employed by rich Arabs and the Swahili to fight
against the Sultan‟s government. Those that remained behind became more stubborn and
did not work as hard as they were required. They disobeyed orders and refused to accept
their masters‟ culture.
Because of this, there were efforts to improve their conditions.
However, the coming of colonialism ended the use of slaves in the plantations.
State the factors that led to development of Plantation agriculture along the east
African coast by Seyid Said.
Existence of fertile soils, which favoured large scale farming.
Adequate rainfall and suitable climate, which promoted farming.
Sultan Seyid Said, who encouraged settlers from Oman and Zanzibar to settle in
Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu.
Easily available slave labour.
The Mijikenda, who gave large tracts of land around Malindi.
Availability of market for grains in Zanzibar, Arabia and the arid coast of Somalia.
Explain the results of plantation agriculture on the east African coast.
Increased slave trade and slave labour.
Emergence of a class of wealthy merchants among the Arabs and Swahili.
International trade due to export of crops such as cloves.
Introduction of new crops such as cloves, coconuts and maize.
Development of towns like Malindi, Pemba and Zanzibar.
Poor working conditions and long hours of work among the slaves.
Development of Agro based industries.
Promotion of trade.
Population increase due to increased food production, owing to the agro based economy
as well as Seyid Said‟s encouragement of people from Oman to settle at the coast to
develop plantation agriculture.
DEVELOPMENT OF LONG DISTANCE TRADE
Explain the origin of Long Distance trade.
By the 19th century, there already was trade among Kenyan communities and between
Kenya and other countries.
Long distance trade connected the east African interior to the coast in Kenya. Two
major commodities (ivory and slaves) were valued at the coast, where they were
exchanged for cloth, utensils, ironware and beads.
Until the 1860s, The Akamba served as middlemen between interior and coastal
communities. Their trading activities took them from the Mount Kenya region to as far as
Baringo and the shores of Lake Victoria. They established good relationship with the
local communities through whose territories they passed, though they discouraged other
people and communities from participating in the trade. For instance, they spread
malicious tales about both the interior and coastal communities.
Explain why the Akamba participated in Long Distance trade.
Ukambani region had poor and unreliable rainfall to support farming.
The outbreak of famine in 1836 compelled them to trade.
Their central position between the coast and the interior facilitated their participation in
trade.
Experienced leaders such as chief Kivoi spearheaded trade.
Demand for goods from the interior at the coast made them get into trade.
Goods for trade such as ivory and slaves were available.
In the 1860s, Arab and Swahili traders started penetrating the interior of Kenya.
They eventually took control of Long Distance trade from the Akamba and started
organizing caravans to as far as Uganda.
Name the communities in east Africa which participated in the long Distance trade in
the 19th century. .
The Akamba,
Mijikenda,
Nyamwezi,
Khartoumers,
Waswahili,
Yao,
Arabs
Baganda.
What led to the decline of Akamba dominance in Long Distance trade?
Loss of trading partners such as the Aembu and the Agikuyu due to Oromo raids.
British colonization, which undermined the trade.
Abolition of slave trade, due to which the main item of exchange (slaves) was lost.
Attacks by the Maasai and Oromo on the trade routes.
Competition from Arab and Swahili traders, who penetrated the interior to get goods
from the sources.
Discuss the organization of Long Distance trade.
Trade routes to the interior went up to Kilimanjaro, the mount Kenya region and the
shores of Lake Victoria. Maasai regions were avoided due to perceived Maasai hostility
to strangers.
Long Distance traders moved into the interior in caravans, using porters, who were
either slaves or free men, with goods to and from the East African coast.
They stopped to rest and replenish food supply at various centers in the interior E.G.
Taveta, Mbooni hills, Lake Baringo, Mumias and Buganda.
From the coast, the traders brought guns, Cotton cloth, beads, glass, swords, Porcelain
vessels, bracelets and bangles. From the interior, they got ivory, rhino horns, slaves, hides
and skins.
Long distance trade was financed by the Arabs and Swahili, who employed Akamba
and Mijikenda traders. The mode of trade was Barter, although Cowrie shells were
introduced as currency in late 19th century.
What were the consequences of Long Distance trade on the people of East Africa?
Emergence of a class of wealthy merchants among African, Swahili and Arab traders
E.G. Chief Kivoi of Ukambani, Nyungu ya Mawe among the Nyamwezi and Tippu Tip
of Zanzibar.
Development of towns like Lamu, Zanzibar and Mombasa.
New crops such as rice and mangoes among others were introduced in east Africa.
Introduction of Islamic religion and culture by Arab traders.
European colonization of Africa following reports given by the Long distance traders
about the importance of the east African coast.
Development of trade routes and market centers.
Development of Plantation agriculture in Mombasa and Malindi due to trade in slaves.
Introduction of foreign goods like beads, cloth and glassware to the people of east
Africa.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
When Seyid Said took control of Zanzibar, he encouraged foreign traders to trade with
Zanzibar in order to develop new markets for products from the East African mainland.
He strived to attract Indian money lenders (Banyans) to come and settle in Zanzibar,
which increased the volume of trade in east Africa.
State the factors that promoted international trade along the east African coast.
The Monsoon winds, which facilitated transport.
Trade between the coast and the far east, which existed before the 19th century.
Demand for goods at the coast and the outside world.
Availability of trade goods like ivory, gold, slaves, beads and guns.
Protection of Arab and Swahili traders by the Sultan.
The deep harbours and good beaches as well as accessibility of the region by sea, which
attracted traders.
Imposition of a unified customs duty of 5% by the Sultan, which encouraged trade.
Introduction of a monitory system by Seyid Said, which facilitated trade. Copper coins,
Spanish Crown and Maria Theresa dollars were used.
Indian Banyans or Baluchis (money lenders), who financed trade by giving credit
facilities to the traders.
Trade routes and markets like Kilwa and Mombasa, which boosted trade.
Signing of treaties between Seyid Said and Western countries. Seyid Said signed
treaties with France, Britain, and the United states of America among other powers, thus
opening up east Africa to world trade.
Identify the goods that were exchanged during international trade along the east
African coast.
EXPORTS
Coconuts,
Gum copal,
Ivory,
Slaves.
IMPORTS
Guns,
American cloth,
beads,
Hardware.
Although Seyid Said did not build a political empire in the interior, he linked and
developed the existing trading networks with people like the Akamba, Agikuyu and
Mijikenda.
Explain the reasons for increased demand for slaves along the east African coast
during the long Distance trade.
Plantation agriculture at the coast depended on slave labour.
French sugar plantations in Reunion and Mauritius increased demand for slaves.
Demand for slaves to work as domestic servants and soldiers in Arabia.
Portuguese plantations in Brazil required labour.
Describe how slaves were obtained during the long distance trade along the east
African coast.
Slave raids.
Warfare. Captives were sold into slavery.
Sale of criminals by chiefs to slave dealers.
Kidnapping of children and lone travelers.
Young children were enticed with sweets and were then captured as slaves.
Debtors who could not pay their liabilities were sold as slaves.
State the effects of slave trade on the people of east Africa.
Growth of plantation farming as a result of slave labour.
Increased suffering, fear and violence.
Heavy loss of life (many deaths).
Depopulation in the interior.
Increased intercommunal warfare to capture slaves.
Trade in ivory and copper increased as slaves were used as porters.
Freed slave centers of Bagamoyo and Freetown were set up following the abolition of
slavery and slave trade.
Destruction of property.
Displacement of families and communities.
Introduction of new goods such as cloth and guns to the region in exchange for slaves.
What were the consequences of international trade in east Africa?
It opened up the east African coast to the outside world.
It led to introduction and spread of Christianity.
New goods such as guns and clothes were introduced.
Introduction of new crops such as rice and maize.
Traders became wealthy and their living standards improved.
East Africa was opened up to European colonization.
Suffering, loss of life, destruction of property due to intensified warfare, ETC, all
resulting from slave trade.
THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY
The Portuguese were the first Christian missionaries to come to Kenya. However, longestablished
Islamic culture and religion overwhelmed their efforts. The 19th century
Revival Movement in Britain and western Europe inspired missionaries to go out to other
parts of the world for the end of the world was perceived to be coming soon.
Give reasons for the coming of missionaries to the east African coast in the 19th
century.
To spread Christianity, western education and civilization.
To counter the spread of Islam, which had taken root in the region.
To abolish slavery and slave trade and replace it with legitimate trade.
To explore the region. Missionaries like Ludwig Krapf and Johann Rebmann were the
first Europeans to sight and explore mount Kenya and mount Kilimanjaro respectively.
Emergence of missionary societies in Western Europe, which competed to send their
members out to Africa.
Adventure, for some desired to be the first to unravel the much that was unknown to
the outside about Africa.
Analyse/discuss Missionary activities in Kenya from the 19th century.
Various missionary societies merged to form the alliance of Missionary societies in
British east Africa.
Missionary work in Kenya started in 1844 with the arrival of Johann Ludwig Krapf
from Germany. Krapf was sent by the Church Missionary Society of England. He began
his work among the coastal people before advancing into the interior.
Together with Johannes Rebmann, Krapf started and established a mission base at
Rabai near Mombasa in 1846. In 1849, they were accompanied by Jacob Erhardt. They
unsuccessfully tried to preach to the Akamba and Taita. Krapf encouraged other
Christian societies to help in spreading Christianity.
In 1862, Thomas Wakefield and members of the United Methodist Church from Britain
arrived and opened mission stations at Ribe, Jomvu and in Lamu. The CMS opened
stations at Sagalla in Taita and at Taveta.
Initially, it was dangerous to start mission stations far inland. E.G. Krapf tried but did
not manage to start a mission station at Kitui due to Akamba anger when Chief Kivoi was
killed while traveling with him. However, in late 19th and early 20th century, the interior
became more peaceful and safer for missionaries to move about spreading Christianity.
In 1891, the Church of Scotland Mission began work at Kibwezi in what is now
Makueni, but they later moved to Kikuyu in Central Province after several missionaries
died at Kibwezi. Members of the Africa Inland Mission from the United States of
America opened their first station at Nzaui in the then Machakos district. They later
extended to Kijabe, Nandi, Kabarnet and Nyakach.
In 1899, some French Catholic missionaries opened Saint Austin‟s Mission station
near Nairobi.
In 1902-1903, the Church Missionary Society from England and the Consolata opened
Mission stations in Nyeri. They worked in Meru and Central Kenya.
By 1914, the Church Of God mission, The Seventh Day Adventists, the Friends
Mission and other Christian societies had reached western Kenya.
List the missionary societies that merged to form the Alliance of Missionary Societies
in British East Africa.
The Church of Scotland Mission
The Church Missionary Society (CMS).
The Africa Inland Mission.
The United Methodist Church Mission.
The British and foreign Bible Society.
Identify the factors that led to the spread of Christianity in east Africa.
Seyid Said‟s support. Early missionaries such as Krapf were given introductory letters
for assistance from coastal rulers.
Some African communities were friendly to the Missionaries.
Missionaries valued, studied and were able to use the languages of the people among
whom they worked, eventually committing them to writing. For instance, Krapf
translated and published the dictionary and parts of the bible into Kiswahili, Kikamba and
Kirabai.
The Christian teaching on equality and love for one another appealed to many Africans.
African converts, especially in the Freed Slave centers such as Freetown helped
missionaries to spread the gospel.
Mission stations, schools and medical centers influenced the spread of Christianity
since those living there had to be converted to Christianity.
Explorers encouraged the missionaries‟ work. Henry Morton Stanley‟s report on
Buganda encouraged missionaries to go to Uganda.
Discovery of Quinine, a cure for Malaria, enabled them to work among African
communities.
The building of the Kenya-Uganda railway facilitated their traveling into the interior.
The colonial government supported missionary work.
Relative peace and stability in the region promoted Missionary work.
Emergence of Independent churches, an African initiative, promoted the spread of
Christianity.
Explain why Christian missionaries established mission stations in east Africa.
To teach Africans how to read the Bible.
To train African Catechists to assist in missionary work.
To convert Africans to Christianity.
To spread western culture.
To teach Africans farming, masonry and carpentry.
To cater for Africans‟ health needs.
To have bases of operation for the missionaries.
To serve as settlement for freed slaves.
To promote European colonization.
Identify the challenges/problems/setbacks encountered by missionaries in east Africa
in the 19
th century.
(Explain the factors that undermined the work/activities of Missionaries in east Africa in
the 19th century.)
Tropical diseases like Malaria and sleeping sickness.
ii) Poor means of transport and communication due to lack of roads, railways,
vehicles and a common or familiar language.
Inadequate supply of food, medicine, money and other essentials.
Hostility from some communities due to conflict over African traditional practices E.G.
Polygamy, offering of sacrifices and female circumcision.
Insecurity, caused by wild animals and by communities that did not want foreigners in
their territory.
Islam, which compelled most missionaries to relocate to other places, like Rabai.
Scarcity of personnel as missionaries were few and worked in areas too big for them.
Interdenominational differences, which led to hatred, E.G. between Catholics and
Protestants due to competition for followers.
Hostility from slave traders, whose activities were adversely affected by missionary
work.
Language barrier, although some tried to learn indigenous African languages.
What were the effects of Missionary activities in east Africa?
Spread of Christianity to most parts of the interior.
Erosion of African culture as some cultural practices such as female circumcision and
burial rites were discarded.
Introduction of western (formal) education.
Building of rehabilitation centers, where vocational skills, reading and Christianity
were taught.
Establishment of health centers and medical services for disease-control and cure.
Improvement of farming through introduction of new crops and livestock as well as
new farming methods.
Development of transport systems.
Translation of the Bible in and introduction of writing to Kiswahili and other local
languages.
Emergence of an elite social class, a new creation to the African set-up.
Exploration and consequent naming and mapping of mountains, rivers and the interior
of Africa.
Colonization of Kenya and the rest of Africa.
Rise of independent churches and schools, free from Missionary influence.
Representation of Africans by Missionaries in the Legislative council.
Establishment of independent African schools.
Abolition of slavery and slave trade in east Africa.
CHAPTER 7
CITIZENSHIP
What is citizenship?
Citizenship is an individual‟s membership or belonging to a country.
Who is a Kenyan citizen?
(What is Kenyan citizenship?)
A Kenyan citizen is a person who has a legal right to belong to Kenya.
Kenyan citizenship refers to all people that belong to Kenya as a country.
Describe three types of citizenship in Kenya.
(In what three ways can one acquire Kenyan citizenship?)
There are three ways of becoming a Kenyan citizen. These are:
Birth. This refers to anyone born in Kenya, but whose parents are not diplomats
representing foreign governments.
Registration. One can apply to become a Kenyan citizen. For instance, one from a foreign
country who gets married to a Kenyan citizen is entitled to Kenyan citizenship once he or
she applies for registration.
Naturalization. If one who has stayed in Kenya for more than five years applies for
Kenyan citizenship, he or she becomes a Kenyan by Naturalization.
Explain the conditions that one must fulfil in order to become a naturalized citizen of
Kenya.
Citizenship by naturalization is attained after fulfilling the following conditions:
Be above 21 years of age.
Must have lived in Kenya for at least one year before the date of application. Besides, one
must have lived in Kenya for at least four of seven years preceding his or her application.
Be of good character.
Have good knowledge of Kiswahili.
Show intention to remain resident in Kenya once registered.
Renounce one‟s previous citizenship.
Explain the circumstances under which the government deprives one of Kenyan
citizenship.
(Identify the circumstances under which a person could lose Kenyan citizenship.)
The government of Kenya has the right to grant or to deny citizenship, even if one has
fulfilled the required conditions. A Kenyan may be deprived or stripped of citizenship in
extreme cases, such as:
If he or she assists an enemy state in the event of war.
If one is sentenced to more than twelve years imprisonment within five years of his or her
registration or naturalization.
When one fraudulently obtains citizenship.
If one has been out of the country for more than five years without having registered with
the Kenyan embassy.
disloyalty to the country by way of speech or actions.
State the constitutional rights of a Kenyan citizen.
The Bill of Rights (chapter 5 of the Kenya Constitution) spells out rights and freedoms to
which a Kenyan citizen is entitled. These are:
the right to life. Life should not be intentionally ended.
Personal freedom (the right to liberty). One should not be unjustly confined or arrested.
Freedom of conscience. One is free to think or believe as they desire and is free to belong
to a faith, religion or denomination of their choice. One is also free to construct and
maintain places of religious instruction at their own cost.
Freedom of expression (Freedom of speech). However, one is not allowed to defame
others, disclose state secrets or incite others to unlawful acts.
Freedom of association and assembly. One is free to form or join groups or associations
of one‟s choice as long as they are not involved in criminal activities.
Freedom of movement. Every Kenyan has the right to travel and move freely within the
country as long as they do not trespass onto private property and gazetted areas such as
Statehouse, military installations, national parks and government buildings. This freedom
may be limited when curfews are imposed or when and where security zones are created.
The right to equal treatment (freedom from discrimination), especially at public
institutions such as schools and hospitals.
The right to acquire and own property, except when the state requires the property for
public use or in case of a court order for settlement of a debt. when property is taken by
the state for public use, the owner must be compensated.
Freedom from arbitrary search and entry. Law enforcement officials must produce a valid
search warrant before searching or entering an individual‟s premises in the course of an
investigation.
Freedom from torture (protection from all forms of inhuman treatment), especially during
an investigation at home or in public.
Freedom from slavery and forced labour. This is to the exclusion of labour as a result of a
prison sentence or that rendered as duty by members of the armed forces e.g. road
maintenance.
Under what circumstances could a Kenyan’s right to life be waived?
(Explain the circumstances in which a Kenyan could be deprived of the right to life.)
In Kenya, waiving or deprivation of the right to life is acceptable on occasions such as:
Self defence or protection of property.
In the process of lawful arrest.
In the process of preventing a lawfully detained person from escaping.
In the process of suppressing a riot, rebellion or mutiny.
When preventing one from committing a crime or felony.
in war.
In case of death sentence by a court of law.
State the circumstances when a Kenyan’s arrest is lawful.
In Kenya, one may be arrested:
to carry out a court order.
To bring one to a court of law.
If one is suspected of committing or is about to commit a criminal offence.
To contain the spread of an infectious disease or to protect and treat a person suspected to
be mentally ill or a drug addict.
To secure education or welfare for a minor (an under-age).
Discuss the factors that may lead to limitation of the rights and freedoms of an
individual in Kenya.
(Explain the limits to a citizen‟s rights in Kenya.)
In the pursuit of our rights, we must not infringe on those of others by endangering them
or causing them discomfort.
We must enjoy our rights within the existing law, without deviation.
Enjoyment of our rights ought not work against national interests.
What are the responsibilities/duties of a Kenyan citizen?
obeying the law by respecting the rights of others in pursuing one‟s own.
Safeguarding the law of the land by giving information about crime to the relevant
authority.
Valid documentation i.e. acquiring and having lawful documents of identification e.g.
Birth certificates, Identity cards, passport, etc.
Payment of tax to finance the government.
Franchise i.e. participation in elections either as candidate or voter.
Protection of the country‟s environment and natural resources e.g. wildlife, forests and
water.
Participation in public debate and other issues of common interest through various
tribunals, commissions and open forums (Barazas).
Describe the elements of good citizenship.
(Describe the qualities that distinguish individuals as good citizens.)
Patriotism i.e. loving and seeking to contribute to the development of one‟s country.
Nationalism i.e. devotion to one‟s country, seeking to unite fellow countrymen above
racial, tribal, religious or parochial interests.
Morality i.e. upholding universally accepted and other moral standards or values e.g.
honesty, decency and respect for life.
Integrity i.e. doing what the law expects at all tunes and in all situations.
Thrift i.e. wise and prudent use of resources at their disposal, such as time and money.
Ethics i.e. rules that govern behaviour. One should adhere to work ethics such as
accountability, transparency, hard work, personal initiative and zero tolerance to
corruption.
Participating in the democratic process, e.g. by voting.
Participating in national debates.
Reporting law breakers.
Being mindful of other people‟s welfare.
Proper use of and preservation of public property.
CHAPTER 8
NATIONAL INTEGRATION
What is National Integration?
Either:
It is the bringing together of different communities into one nation.
Or:
It is the process of uniting people that live in a country in spite of their diverse culture,
religion, race, tribe, occupation and social background.
State the importance of National Integration.
It brings lasting peace and prosperity.
It enables Kenyans to solve the many problems they at times find themselves in.
It brings rapid economic and social development.
It results in political stability and a feeling of security.
It eliminates intercommunal suspicion and enhances nationalism and patriotism.
It helps create conditions suitable to attract foreign investment.
It provides a national direction, for it sets national goals.
It encourages and enhances communication among the people since it involves an official
language of communication.
NATIONAL UNITY
What is National Unity?
National Unity is bringing together or fully fusing a country‟s citizens into one, enabling
each to have a sense of belonging.
Name three symbols of national unity in Kenya.
The national flag.
The National Anthem.
The Coat Of Arms.
The Loyalty pledge.
National Awards.
National holidays.
Identify the factors that promote national unity in Kenya.
The Constitution, which guarantees equality of opportunity to all citizens.
The curriculum (system of education), which encourages children from an early age to
develop a feeling of national belonging.
Equal distribution of resources by trying to develop the whole country‟s economy.
Intermarriage and other intercommunal activities such as games and music festivals in
addition to trade and working together.
Currency. In Kenya, business is transacted through one currency: the Shilling.
The national language (Kiswahili), which enables Kenyans to communicate freely and
easily.
National philosophies (Harambe, African Socialism and Nyayoism), which call on
Kenyans to pool their resources together in peace, love and unity in spite of their different
ethnic groups.
The National Flag, the symbol of our nation.
The Kenya Coat of Arms, which symbolizes our existence as a sovereign state.
The national Anthem, which reminds us of our peaceful and harmonious existence.
The Loyalty pledge, a reminder of our loyalty to the president and our nation.
National awards, which are given to Kenyans of outstanding performance in contributing
to the country‟s development.
Government institutions (the Judiciary, the Executive and the Legislature), which serve
all Kenyans equally.
. National public holidays and events, which are held throughout Kenya.
The institution of the Presidency, which unites all Kenyans, for the president is the Head
of state and government.
Urbanization, which promotes co-existence and interaction among Kenyans as people
from different ethnic groups live together in towns and even intermarry.
A centralized system of government.
In what ways does the Kenya Constitution promote national Unity?
It provides the equality of all Kenyans.
Kenyans are bound by one constitution, making it a unifying factor.
It guarantees equal opportunities for all Kenyans.
It protects individuals against any form of discrimination as provided for in the Bill of
Rights.
It provides for a unitary government under one president.
Explain the factors that undermine national unity in Kenya.
Religious conflicts, caused by interdenominational, denominational, sectarian and interreligious
differences, based on doctrinal differences and the struggle for leadership. This
has led to civil wars in such places as Sudan and Northern Ireland.
Ethnicity i.e. the favouring of people from one‟s own ethnic group at the expense of
others.
Racism and intolerance, whereby citizens choose not to accommodate others or opposing
views.
Corruption i.e. giving and receiving bribes and abuse of office.
Divisive politics, whereby parties tend to divide people into camps based on party
affiliation, even over matters of national interest.
Economic inequality whereby the wealthy class own a large part of agricultural and
industrial business and hold key posts in the civil service, the military, educational
institutions and the industries as others remain below the poverty line, victimised by
unemployment, unequal income distribution, lack of land and adverse climatic
conditions.
Cultural and traditional conflicts, whereby some alien practices may conflict with
traditional African ones e.g. style of dressing and the issue of equality between men and
women.
Poverty, which leads to antisocial acts such as theft and violence.
Political ideologies i.e. different political views, leading to use of physical or verbal
violence.
Nepotism i.e. favouring one‟s relatives.
CONFLICT
What is conflict?
Conflict could be defined as:
Disagreement between people, based on opposing views or interests.
Armed struggle between people or soldiers.
Identify the levels of conflict.
Conflicts range from ordinary family level to national and international levels. These are:
Individual versus individual.
Group versus group.
Individual versus state.
Group versus state.
State versus state.
Identify the aspects of conflict.
There are three main aspects of conflict, namely:
Social aspects, i.e. disputes involving members of a family, clan or tribe, religious groups
and educational institutions.
Political aspects i.e. disputes between political parties.
Economic aspects i.e. disputes between employers and employees.
Explain the factors that led to conflict in Kenya after independence.
After Kenya got her independence, conflicts arose from economic-related factors, such as:
Market economy, which might contribute to conflict between trading and industrial
groups, especially under the free market policy.
Contractual conflict, mostly caused by contracted companies who fail to complete work
to the standards agreed upon, or contracted agents who fail to pay for work or service
rendered.
Kenya and the world, whereby conflicts may arise between Kenya and her neighbours
over diverse issues, such as use of natural resources, influx of refugees from
neighbouring countries, or national security issues.
Trading policies, especially where Kenya or her neighbours impose tariffs that are
perceived to harm the countries‟ trading interests.
Conflicts that involve Kenya with foreign donor agencies, lending agencies and other
international organizations.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
What is conflict-resolution?
Conflict-resolution is:
The process of settling disputes.
The working out of a settlement to defuse the conflict.
Identify the methods of resolving conflict in Kenya.
Methods of resolving conflict depend on the type, nature, magnitude and level of
understanding of the parties or persons in disagreement, such as:
Arbitration, whereby arbitrators mediate and resolve conflicts as provided for by the
Kenyan law.
Diplomacy i.e. negotiation between individuals or countries to create room for
understanding and reconciliation. Diplomacy can be used to solve conflicts at domestic,
tribal, Institutional, international, national and working levels. The U N O is heavily
involved in international diplomacy throughout the world.
Legislation, which involves passing of laws that can be used to criminalize activities that
lead to conflict.
Traditional resolutions, which are enacted by elders or wise men, normally used between
conflicting communities.
Religious action, which can be used first among parties themselves and their followers.
Court action, where parties take other parties for arbitration. It can be taken up by any of
the parties in conflict.
Policing, which is used to maintain law and order and helps in controlling crime that
brings about conflict.
International agreements, normally between Kenya and her neighbours and between
Kenya and the donor countries or agencies.
Discuss the process of resolving conflict in Kenya today.
This involves or takes the following course:
The Legal process. The Judiciary, through established courts throughout the country is
empowered to solve cases among citizens.
Arbitration i.e. Round Table discussion. This involves identifying the source or cause of
the conflict and then sitting to iron out the problems. The arbitrator and the conflicting
parties meet and talk face to face.
The Court process. Here, the conflicting parties take their case to a court of law. Both
parties are allowed to call witnesses to prove their case. The court may dismiss or allow
the case to continue. Upon delivery of the verdict, any party that is dissatisfied is given
chance to appeal to High court.
Prosecution. Here, criminal cases are reported to the police, who arrest and present the
suspects for prosecution before a court of law.
Armed Forces. In the absence of law and order, force is the only option. The police or the
army are required to arrest, detain or shoot at suspects. This method is used to deal with
strikes, mobs, bandits and revolts.
Negotiation. a mediator calls the conflicting parties for a meeting after individually
studying the points of disagreement, after which a peaceful resolution may be arrived at.
What three steps does Negotiation take as a process of resolving conflict?
The following steps are followed during Negotiation:
Finding out the facts about the conflict.
Discussing the possible solutions.
Reaching an agreement, by which each party shows willingness to compromise.
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